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Maaroof AA, Smith JD, Zangana MH. Design and simulation of a utility oilfield flare in Iraq/Kurdistan region using CFD and API-521 methodology. Heliyon 2023; 9:e18581. [PMID: 37593608 PMCID: PMC10432168 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e18581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2023] [Revised: 06/21/2023] [Accepted: 07/21/2023] [Indexed: 08/19/2023] Open
Abstract
This paper aims at reviewing and analyzing the operation and design of a utility flare in an oilfield in the Iraq/Kurdistan region. The flare supports a gas separation unit that separates 100 MMSCFD of natural gas from other liquid compounds in petroleum refining. The actual flare dimensions are 50 m high and 0.6 m diameter and works in summer where the crosswind speed is 9 m/s and a flow of 1.2 MMSCFD of treated natural gas is flaring through it. At the beginning, the flare design was performed using the API-521 recommended approach based on full operating capacity of the unit and composition of the gas to be flared. The API-521 based design resulted in a flare with a 0.76 m diameter and 48.19 m height. The effects of stack height on heat radiation in case of full capacity firing showed that as the flare height increases from 42.34 m to 133.05 m, the heat radiation decreases from 15.8 kW/m^2 to 1.6 kW/m^2 within 45.7 m dimeter. Furthermore, the relation between stack height and heat radiation was studied for the actual firing rate 1.2MMSCFD using simulation, where the results showed that as the stack height increasing from 10 m to 50 m the heat radiation decreasing from over 1000 w/m^2 to around 150 W/m^2. In fact, CFD code C3d was used to analyze flare performance at normal firing condition during summer operation of 1.2 MMSCFD with a flare diameter and height of 50 m and 0.6 m, respectively. The code was able to predict the flame shape and size during actual flare operation. The results of the simulation demonstrated by defining four locations in the domain to measure the average temperatures and emissions, and to calculate the Combustion Efficiency (CE) and Destruction and Removal Efficiency (DRE). These points were 6 m, 8 m, 10 m, 12 m far from the tip on x-axis and at height of 52 m. The results showed that the average temperature at 6 m far from the flare is 658 K and it decreasing to 490 K at 12 m away from the tip. The CO and CO2 also decreased from 7.27E-5 and 0.033 mass% to 4.53E-6 and 0.027 mass%, respectively. Generally, soot formation was low but at points 8 m and 10 m from the tip the soot formation was considerably lower, respectively at 6.16E-5 and 8.71E-5 mass%. The emissions of C1, C2, C3 and C6+ were measured at 7.46E-9, 5.39E-9, 5.13E-9 and 4.35E-9 mass% at 6 m away from the tip. The emissions increased slightly at 8 m and 10 m from the tip but at 12 m they were observed to decrease. The flare CE and DRE were estimated to be 98% and 100%, respectively. Analysis results confirmed that the flare design was safe and the flare operation was highly efficient with very little smoke produced as indicated by the predicted CE and DRE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed A. Maaroof
- Petroleum Engineering Department, Koya University, Koya KOY45 AB64, Kurdistan Region, Iraq
| | - Joseph D. Smith
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, MO, 65409, USA
| | - Mohammed H.S. Zangana
- Petroleum Engineering Department, Koya University, Koya KOY45 AB64, Kurdistan Region, Iraq
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Wang Y, Zhang H, Zhang H, Kang X, Xu X, Wang R, Zou H, Chen W, Pan D, Lü F, He P. Flare exhaust: An underestimated pollution source in municipal solid waste landfills. CHEMOSPHERE 2023; 325:138327. [PMID: 36889471 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.138327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2022] [Revised: 02/17/2023] [Accepted: 03/04/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Flares are commonly used in municipal solid waste landfills, and the pollution from flare exhaust is usually underestimated. This study aimed to reveal the odorants, hazardous pollutants, and greenhouse gas emission characteristics of the flare exhaust. Odorants, hazardous pollutants, and greenhouse gases emitted from air-assisted flares and a diffusion flare were analyzed, the priority monitoring pollutants were identified, and the combustion and odorant removal efficiencies of the flares were estimated. The concentrations of most odorants and the sum of odor activity values decreased significantly after combustion, but the odor concentration could still exceed 2,000. The odorants in the flare exhaust were dominated by oxygenated volatile organic compounds (OVOCs), while the major odor contributors were OVOCs and sulfur compounds. Hazardous pollutants, including carcinogens, acute toxic pollutants, endocrine disrupting chemicals, and ozone precursors with the total ozone formation potential up to 75 ppmv, as well as greenhouse gases (methane and nitrous oxide with maximum concentrations of 4,000 and 1.9 ppmv, respectively) were emitted from the flares. Additionally, secondary pollutants, such as acetaldehyde and benzene, were formed during combustion. The combustion performance of the flares varied with landfill gas composition and flare design. The combustion and pollutant removal efficiencies could be lower than 90%, especially for the diffusion flare. Acetaldehyde, benzene, toluene, p-cymene, limonene, hydrogen sulfide, and methane could be priority monitoring pollutants for flare emissions in landfills. Flares are useful for odor and greenhouse gas control in landfills, but they are also potential sources of odor, hazardous pollutants, and greenhouse gases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yujing Wang
- Institute of Waste Treatment & Reclamation, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Hua Zhang
- Institute of Waste Treatment & Reclamation, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, China; Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Multi-source Solid Wastes Co-processing and Energy Utilization, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Haihua Zhang
- Hangzhou Environmental Group Company Limited, Hangzhou 310022, China
| | - Xinyue Kang
- Institute of Waste Treatment & Reclamation, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Xiangyu Xu
- Institute of Waste Treatment & Reclamation, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Ruiheng Wang
- Institute of Waste Treatment & Reclamation, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Huihuang Zou
- Institute of Waste Treatment & Reclamation, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Wenwen Chen
- Institute of Waste Treatment & Reclamation, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Duo Pan
- Hangzhou Environmental Group Company Limited, Hangzhou 310022, China
| | - Fan Lü
- Institute of Waste Treatment & Reclamation, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, China; Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Multi-source Solid Wastes Co-processing and Energy Utilization, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Pinjing He
- Institute of Waste Treatment & Reclamation, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, China; Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Multi-source Solid Wastes Co-processing and Energy Utilization, Shanghai 200092, China.
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3
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Ge S, Wang S, Xu Q, Ho T. Study on regional air quality impact from a chemical plant emergency shutdown. CHEMOSPHERE 2018; 201:655-666. [PMID: 29547854 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.03.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2017] [Revised: 03/03/2018] [Accepted: 03/04/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Emergency shutdowns of chemical plants (ESCP) inevitably generate intensive and huge amounts of VOCs and NOx emissions through flaring that can cause highly localized and transient air pollution events with elevated ozone concentrations. However, quantitative studies of regional ozone impact due to ESCP, in terms of how ESCP would affect and to what extent ESCP could impact, are still lacking. This paper reports a systematic study on regional air quality impact from an olefin plant emergency shutdown due to the sudden failure of its cracked gas compressor (CGC). It demonstrates that emergency shutdown may cause significant ozone increment subject to different factors such as the starting time of emergency shutdown, flare destruction and removal efficiency (DRE) and plant location. In our studied case, the 8-hr ozone increment ranges from 0.4 to 3.3 ppb under different starting time, from 3.3 to 24.8 ppb under different DRE, and from 1.6 to 3.3 ppb under different locations. The results enable us to understand how and to what extent emergency operating activities of the chemical process will affect local air quality, which might be beneficial for decision makings on emergency air-quality response and control in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sijie Ge
- Dan F. Smith Department of Chemical Engineering, Beaumont, TX, 77710, USA
| | - Sujing Wang
- Department of Computer Science, Lamar University, Beaumont, TX, 77710, USA
| | - Qiang Xu
- Dan F. Smith Department of Chemical Engineering, Beaumont, TX, 77710, USA.
| | - Thomas Ho
- Dan F. Smith Department of Chemical Engineering, Beaumont, TX, 77710, USA
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Morgott DA. The Human Exposure Potential from Propylene Releases to the Environment. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2018; 15:ijerph15010066. [PMID: 29300328 PMCID: PMC5800165 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph15010066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2017] [Revised: 12/22/2017] [Accepted: 12/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
A detailed literature search was performed to assess the sources, magnitudes and extent of human inhalation exposure to propylene. Exposure evaluations were performed at both the community and occupational levels for those living or working in different environments. The results revealed a multitude of pyrogenic, biogenic and anthropogenic emission sources. Pyrogenic sources, including biomass burning and fossil fuel combustion, appear to be the primary contributors to atmospheric propylene. Despite a very short atmospheric lifetime, measurable levels could be detected in highly remote locations as a result of biogenic release. The indoor/outdoor ratio for propylene has been shown to range from about 2 to 3 in non-smoking homes, which indicates that residential sources may be the largest contributor to the overall exposure for those not occupationally exposed. In homes where smoking takes place, the levels may be up to thirty times higher than non-smoking residences. Atmospheric levels in most rural regions are typically below 2 ppbv, whereas the values in urban levels are much more variable ranging as high as 10 ppbv. Somewhat elevated propylene exposures may also occur in the workplace; especially for firefighters or refinery plant operators who may encounter levels up to about 10 ppmv.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Morgott
- Pennsport Consulting, LLC, 1 Christian Street, Unit#21, Philadelphia, PA 19147, USA.
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Wormhoudt J, Wood EC, Knighton WB, Kolb CE, Herndon SC, Olaguer EP. Vehicle emissions of radical precursors and related species observed in the 2009 SHARP campaign. JOURNAL OF THE AIR & WASTE MANAGEMENT ASSOCIATION (1995) 2015; 65:699-706. [PMID: 25976483 DOI: 10.1080/10962247.2015.1008654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED The 2009 Study of Houston Atmospheric Radical Precursors (SHARP) field campaign had several components that yielded information on the primary vehicular emissions of formaldehyde (HCHO) and nitrous acid (HONO), in addition to many other species. Analysis of HONO measurements at the Moody Tower site in Houston, TX, yielded emission ratios of HONO to the vehicle exhaust tracer species NOx and CO of 14 pptv/ppbv and 2.3 pptv/ppbv, somewhat smaller than recently published results from the Galleria site, although evidence is presented that the Moody Tower values should be upper limits to the true ratios of directly emitted HONO, and are consistent with ratios used in current standard emissions models. Several other Moody Tower emission ratios are presented, in particular a value for HCHO/CO of 2.4 pptv/ppbv. Considering only estimates of random errors, this would be significantly lower than a previous value, though the small sample size and possible systematic differences should be taken into account. Emission factors for CO, NOx, and HCHO, as well as various volatile organic compounds (VOCs), were derived from mobile laboratory measurements both in the Washburn Tunnel and in on-road exhaust plume observations. These two sets of results and others reported in the literature all agree well, and are substantially larger than the CO, NOx, and HCHO emission factors derived from the emission ratios reported from the Galleria site. IMPLICATIONS Emission factors for the species measured in the various components of the 2009 SHARP campaign in Houston, TX, including HCHO, HONO, CO, CO2, nitrogen oxides, and VOCs, are needed to support regional air quality monitoring. Components of the SHARP campaign measured these species in several different ways, each with their own potential for systematic errors and differences in vehicle fleets sampled. Comparisons between data sets suggest that differences in sampling place and time may result in quite different emission factors, while also showing that different vehicle mixes can yield surprisingly similar emission factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Wormhoudt
- a Aerodyne Research, Inc ., Billerica , MA , USA
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6
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Couzo E, Jeffries HE, Vizuete W. Houston's rapid ozone increases: preconditions and geographic origins. ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY (COLLINGWOOD, VIC.) 2013; 10:260-268. [PMID: 24014080 PMCID: PMC3763807 DOI: 10.1071/en13040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Many of Houston's highest 8-h ozone (O3) peaks are characterised by increases in concentrations of at least 40 ppb in 1 h, or 60 ppb in 2 h. These rapid increases are called non-typical O3 changes (NTOCs). In 2004, the Texas Commission on Environmental Quality (TCEQ) developed a novel emissions control strategy aimed at eliminating NTOCs. The strategy limited routine and short-term emissions of ethene, propene, 1,3-butadiene and butene isomers, collectively called highly reactive volatile organic compounds (HRVOCs), which are released from petrochemical facilities. HRVOCs have been associated with NTOCs through field campaigns and modelling studies. This study analysed wind measurements and O3, formaldehyde (HCHO) and sulfur dioxide (SO2) concentrations from 2000 to 2011 at 25 ground monitors in Houston. NTOCs almost always occurred when monitors were downwind of petrochemical facilities. Rapid O3 increases were associated with low wind speeds; 75 % of NTOCs occurred when the 3-h average wind speed preceding the event was less than 6.5 km h-1. Statistically significant differences in HCHO concentrations were seen between days with and without NTOCs. Early afternoon HCHO concentrations were greater on NTOC days. In the morning before an observed NTOC event, however, there were no significant differences in HCHO concentrations between days with and without NTOCs. Hourly SO2 concentrations also increased rapidly, exhibiting behaviour similar to NTOCs. Oftentimes, the SO2 increases preceded a NTOC. These findings show that, despite the apparent success of targeted HRVOC emission controls, further restrictions may be needed to eliminate the remaining O3 events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evan Couzo
- University of North Carolina, Gillings School of Global Public Health, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Harvey E. Jeffries
- University of North Carolina, Gillings School of Global Public Health, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - William Vizuete
- University of North Carolina, Gillings School of Global Public Health, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
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7
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Allen D. Preface to the Special Issue of Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research on Industrial Flares. Ind Eng Chem Res 2012. [DOI: 10.1021/ie3020523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- David Allen
- University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas
78712
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8
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Herndon SC, Nelson DD, Wood EC, Knighton WB, Kolb CE, Kodesh Z, Torres VM, Allen DT. Application of the Carbon Balance Method to Flare Emissions Characteristics. Ind Eng Chem Res 2012. [DOI: 10.1021/ie202676b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Scott C. Herndon
- Aerodyne Research, Inc., Billerica, Massachusetts, United States
| | - David D. Nelson
- Aerodyne Research, Inc., Billerica, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Ezra C. Wood
- Aerodyne Research, Inc., Billerica, Massachusetts, United States
- Department of Public Health, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts,
United States
| | - W. Berk Knighton
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana, United
States
| | - Charles E. Kolb
- Aerodyne Research, Inc., Billerica, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Zach Kodesh
- John Zink Company, LLC, Tulsa, Oklahoma, United States
| | - Vincent M. Torres
- Center for Energy and Environment
Resources, University of Texas, Austin,
Texas, United States
| | - David T. Allen
- Center for Energy and Environment
Resources, University of Texas, Austin,
Texas, United States
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