Hydrolysis of Vegetable Oils to Fatty Acids Using Brønsted Acidic Ionic Liquids as Catalysts

Unveiling the role of mechanical process intensifications and chemical additives in boosting lipase-catalyzed hydrolysis of vegetable oil for fatty acid production: A comprehensive review

The enzymatic production of fatty acids from vegetable oils is becoming a preferred method due to its mild conditions, simplicity, and scalability. This review analyzes studies on enzymatic hydrolysis, exploring various feedstocks, lipases, reaction conditions, and conversion yields. However, a key limitation is the longer reaction time compared to conventional methods. This limitation is primarily due to the immiscibility of triacylglycerols (TAGs) with water at low temperatures and pressures, as well as the lower activity of enzymes compared to chemical catalysts. To overcome these issues, chemical additives are identified as the most effective process intensification strategy. They are easy to implement, cause less damage to lipases, and are more efficient than mechanical methods. The impact of various chemical additives was thoroughly examined for potential improvements in the enzymatic hydrolysis of vegetable oils. A synergistic combination of chemical additives comprising ionic liquids (ILs) and polyols, along with ultrasound, as well as the consideration of immobilization techniques were explored. Overall, this review highlights the potential of chemical additives and their synergistic feasibility in enhancing the enzymatic performance of lipase-catalyzed hydrolysis reactions.

Influence of moisture content, temperature, and time on free fatty acid in stored crude palm oil

Consequent to the importance of crude palm oil (CPO) to global food processing industries, and the need for quality assurance of CPO. A kinetic model that describes changes of free fatty acid (FFA) in industrially stored CPO has been developed. CPO FFA is a well-known indicator of the deterioration of CPO. The effect of initial moisture content, storage temperature, and time on CPO FFA have been investigated in this work. Specifically, statistical multi-regression models for changes in FFA and moisture content (MC) were developed at P-value < 0.05 or 95% confidence interval fence. It was found that CPO FFA increases with an increase in moisture content, temperature, and time in their linear term and in respect to decreases in their quadratic term, and interaction between moisture content and temperature. The CPO MC was also found to decrease with an increase in temperature and time and increases in the quadratic term of temperature. Although while the model for CPO FFA, based on Fisher's F-test: [Formula: see text], showed no lack-of-fit; that of CPO MC showed lack-of-fit, [Formula: see text]. Furthermore, based on inference from the statistical model, their kinetic models were also developed. While the CPO FFA kinetic, found to be a half-order kinetic model and its other auxiliary models showed a very good fit (R² {0.9933-0.8614} and RMSE {0.0020-3.6716}); that of CPO MC was a poorly fitted first-order kinetic model (R² {0.9885-0.3935} and RMSE {0.0605-17.8501}).

Separation and purification of fatty acids by membrane technology: a critical review

Fatty acids (FAs) are a very important group of raw materials for chemical industry, and the technology of separating or purifying the FAs from the reaction product mixture has always been the hotspot of research. Membrane processes for separation of FAs are being increasingly reported. Compared with conventional FAs separation methods, membrane separation has the advantages of low energy consumption, system compactness, high separation efficiency, easy scale-up, high available surface area per unit volume and low working temperatures, thereby attracting considerable attention of many researchers. In this regards, this paper critically reviewed the developments of methods for FAs separation and purification, and the future prospects of coupling membrane technology with hydrolysis for enhanced production of FAs.

Response Surface Methodology Optimization and Kinetic Study of Ultrafiltration-Enhanced, SCER-catalyzed Hydrolysis of Lard

The integration process of polyethersulphone (PES) ultrafiltration with catalytic hydrolysis of lard was optimized by response surface methodology (RSM). The influences of molar ratio of water to lard, reaction time and transmembrane pressure on the fatty acids (FAs) yield were investigated. Results showed that the maximum FAs yield of 99.52 % was obtained under the optimized conditions of molar ratio of water to lard of 6.0:1.0, reaction time of 10.0 h and transmembrane pressure of 100.0 kPa. Moreover, the membrane cleaning efficiency was studied after four cleanings. Furthermore, the kinetic model of membrane separation process was investigated and the activation energy and pre-exponential factor were determined.

Liquid lipase-catalyzed hydrolysis of gac oil for fatty acid production: Optimization using response surface methodology

Fatty acids are valuable products because they have wide industrial applications in the manufacture of detergents, cosmetics, food, and various biomedical applications. In enzyme-catalyzed hydrolysis, the use of immobilized lipase results in high production cost. To address this problem, Eversa Transform lipase, a new and low-cost liquid lipase formulation, was used for the first time in oil hydrolysis with gac oil as a triglyceride source in this study. Response surface methodology was employed to optimize the reaction conditions and establish a reliable mathematical model for predicting hydrolysis yield. A maximal yield of 94.16% was obtained at a water-to-oil molar ratio of 12.79:1, reaction temperature of 38.9 °C, enzyme loading of 13.88%, and reaction time of 8.41 h. Under this optimal reaction condition, Eversa Transform lipase could be reused for up to eight cycles without significant loss in enzyme activity. This study indicates that the use of liquid Eversa Transform lipase in enzyme-catalyzed oil hydrolysis could be a promising and cheap method of fatty acid production. © 2018 American Institute of Chemical Engineers Biotechnol. Prog., 2018.

Efficient biodiesel production via solid superacid catalysis: a critical review on recent breakthrough

Biodiesel produced from triglycerides and/or free fatty acids (FFAs) by transesterification and esterification has attracted immense attention during the past decades as a biodegradable, renewable and sustainable fuel.

Effect of subcritical water on homogeneous catalysis of used cooking oil hydrolysis

Subcritical water properties affect fatty acid (FA) yield in three different catalyst systems (FA-, acid-, and Cu-catalyzed systems) and Cu removal in the Cu-catalyzed system.