Ligand binding properties of myoglobin reconstituted with iron porphycene: unusual O2 binding selectivity against CO binding

Diversifying the functions of heme proteins with non-porphyrin cofactors

Heme proteins perform diverse biochemical functions using a single iron porphyrin cofactor. This versatility makes them attractive platforms for the development of new functional proteins. While directed evolution and metal substitution have expanded the properties, reactivity, and applications of heme proteins, the incorporation of porphyrin analogs remains an underexplored approach. This review discusses the replacement of heme with non-porphyrin cofactors, such as porphycene, corrole, tetradehydrocorrin, phthalocyanine, and salophen, and the attendant properties of these conjugates. While structurally similar, each ligand exhibits distinct optical and redox properties, as well as unique chemical reactivity. These hybrids serve as model systems to elucidate the effects of the protein environment on the electronic structure, redox potentials, optical properties, or other features of the porphyrin analog. Protein encapsulation can confer distinct chemical reactivity or selectivity of artificial metalloenzymes that cannot be achieved with the small molecule catalyst alone. Additionally, these conjugates can interfere with heme acquisition and uptake in pathogenic bacteria, providing an inroad to innovative antibiotic strategies. Together, these examples illustrate the diverse functionality that can be achieved by cofactor substitution. The further expansion of this approach will access unexplored chemical space, enabling the development of superior catalysts and the creation of heme proteins with emergent properties.

Artificial Small Molecules as Cofactors and Biomacromolecular Building Blocks in Synthetic Biology: Design, Synthesis, Applications, and Challenges

Enzymes are essential catalysts for various chemical reactions in biological systems and often rely on metal ions or cofactors to stabilize their structure or perform functions. Improving enzyme performance has always been an important direction of protein engineering. In recent years, various artificial small molecules have been successfully used in enzyme engineering. The types of enzymatic reactions and metabolic pathways in cells can be expanded by the incorporation of these artificial small molecules either as cofactors or as building blocks of proteins and nucleic acids, which greatly promotes the development and application of biotechnology. In this review, we summarized research on artificial small molecules including biological metal cluster mimics, coenzyme analogs (mNADs), designer cofactors, non-natural nucleotides (XNAs), and non-natural amino acids (nnAAs), focusing on their design, synthesis, and applications as well as the current challenges in synthetic biology.

How Nanoparticles Modify Adsorbed Proteins: Impact of Silica Nanoparticles on the Hemoglobin Active Site

The adsorption of proteins on surfaces has been studied for a long time, but the relationship between the structural and functional properties of the adsorbed protein and the adsorption mechanism remains unclear. Using hemoglobin adsorbed on silica nanoparticles, we have previously shown that hemoglobin's affinity towards oxygen increases with adsorption. Nevertheless, it was also shown that there were no significant changes in the quaternary and secondary structures. In order to understand the change in activity, we decided in this work to focus on the active sites of hemoglobin, the heme and its iron. After measuring adsorption isotherms of porcine hemoglobin on Ludox silica nanoparticles, we analyzed the structural modifications of adsorbed hemoglobin by X-ray absorption spectroscopy and circular dichroism spectra in the Soret region. It was found that upon adsorption, there were modifications in the heme pocket environment due to changes in the angles of the heme vinyl functions. These alterations can explain the greater affinity observed.

In-Core N4-Coordination of Palladium(II) in Dinaphthoporphycene: Synthesis, Structure, and Photophysical Studies

Dinaphthoporphycene (DNP) has emerged as a versatile ligand undergoing large out-of-plane distortion to form a cis-bimetallic complex with Pd(II) using Pd(OAc)₂ and out-of-plane monometallic complexes with Pd(acac)₂ and PtCl₂(PhCN)₂. Herein, we are finally able to synthesize the in-core complex with Pd(II) using PdCl₂(PhCN)₂ or PdCl₂. The crystal structure shows the palladium ion resides slightly above the N4-core, with the Pd(II) dimensionally dissenting with the typical square planarity displayed by the reported in-core DNP complexes with Ni(II) and Cu(II) ions. The deformed complex displays a blue shift in the absorption spectra compared to DNP and its metallo-derivatives. PdDNP exhibits a moderate singlet oxygen generation ability (18%).

3,6,13,16-Tetraalkylporphycenes: Synthesis and Exploration of Effect of Alkyl Groups on Structure, Photophysical Properties, and Basicity

Two new 3,6,13,16-tetraalkylporphycenes were synthesized following rational approach. The reason behind lower yield of the desired β,β'-bipyrroles was unraveled. The σ-donating effect of alkyl-substituents was more profound than reported positional...

Functional Myoglobin Model Composed of a Strapped Porphyrin/Cyclodextrin Supramolecular Complex with an Overhanging COOH That Increases O2/CO Binding Selectivity in Aqueous Solution

A water-soluble strapped iron(III)tetraarylporphyrin (Fe^IIIPor-1) bearing two propylpyridinium groups at the side chains and a carboxylic acid group at the overhanging position of the strap was synthesized to mimic the function of myoglobin with the distal polar functionality in aqueous solution. Fe^IIIPor-1 forms a stable 1:1 inclusion complex with a per-O-methylated β-cyclodextrin dimer having a pyridine linker (Py3OCD), providing a hydrophobic environment and a proximal fifth ligand to stabilize the O₂-complex. The ferrous complex (Fe^IIPorCD-1) binds both O₂ and CO in aqueous solution. The O₂ and CO binding affinities (P_1/2^O2 and P_1/2^CO) and half-life time (t_1/2) of the O₂ complex of Fe^IIPorCD-1 are 6.3 and 0.021 Torr, and 7 h, respectively, at pH 7 and 25 °C. The control compound without the strap structure (Fe^IIPorCD-2) has similar oxygen binding characteristics (P_1/2^O2 = 8.0 Torr), but much higher CO binding affinity (P_1/2^CO = 3.8 × 10^-4 Torr), and longer t_1/2 (30 h). The O₂ and CO kinetics indicate that the strapped structure in Fe^IIPorCD-1 inhibits the entrance of these gaseous ligands into the iron(II) center, as evidenced by lower k_on^O2 and k_on^CO values. Interestingly, the CO complex of Fe^IIPorCD-1 is significantly destabilized (relatively larger k_off^CO), while the k_off^O2 value is much smaller than that of Fe^IIPorCD-2, resulting in significantly increased O₂/CO selectivity (reduced M value, where M = P_1/2^O2/P_1/2^CO = 320) in Fe^IIPorCD-1 compared to Fe^IIPorCD-2 (M = 21000).

Linkage Isomers of 4-Methylimidazolate Mn(II) Porphyrinates: Hindered or Unhindered?

Three different manganese(II) porphyrins have been exploited to react with 4-methylimidazolate (4-MeIm^-), and the five-coordinate products are characterized by ultraviolet-visible, single-crystal X-ray, and electronic paramagnetic resonance spectroscopies. Interestingly, 4-MeIm^- is found to bond to the metal center through either of the two N atoms (N1 or N3), which yielded two linkage isomers with either an unhindered or a hindered ligand conformation, respectively. Investigations revealed it is the large metal out-of-plane displacements (Δ₂₄ and Δ₄ ≥ 0.59 Å) that have rendered the equivalence of two isomers with a small energy difference (5.2-8.3 kJ/mol). The nonbonded intra- and intermolecular interactions thus become crucial factors in the balance of linkage isomerization. All of the products in both solution and solid states show the same characteristic resonances of high-spin Mn(II) (S = ⁵/₂) with g_⊥ ≈ 5.9 and g_∥ ≈ 2.0 at 4 K, consistent with the weak effects of the axial ligand on core conformation and metal electronic configurations. Zero-field splitting parameters obtained through simulations are also reported.

Myoglobins engineered with artificial cofactors serve as artificial metalloenzymes and models of natural enzymes

Metalloenzymes naturally achieve various reactivities by assembling limited types of cofactors with endogenous amino acid residues. Enzymes containing metal porphyrinoid cofactors such as heme, cobalamin and F430 exert precise control over the reactivities of the cofactors with protein matrices. This perspective article focuses on our recent efforts to assemble metal complexes of non-natural porphyrinoids within the protein matrix of myoglobin, an oxygen storage hemoprotein. Engineered myoglobins with suitable metal complexes as artificial cofactors demonstrate unique reactivities toward C-H bond hydroxylation, olefin cyclopropanation, methyl group transfer and methane generation. In these cases, the protein matrix enhances the catalytic activities of the cofactors and allows us to monitor the active intermediates. The present findings indicate that placing artificial cofactors in protein matrices provides a useful strategy for creating artificial metalloenzymes that catalyse otherwise unfavourable reactions and providing enzyme models for elucidating the complicated reaction mechanisms of natural enzymes.

3,6,13,16-Tetrasubstituted Porphycene: The Missing Link in Porphycene Chemistry

We have introduced the first 3,6,13,16-tetrasubstituted porphycene as its tetramethoxy analogue. This substitution pattern is one of the most general patterns yet missing in this isomeric porphyrin chemistry. This porphycene exhibits intense fluorescence along with the ability to coordinate with divalent metal ions; in particular, it forms the first stable Zn(II) complex among the tetrasubstituted porphycenes. Notably, the molecular structure of Zn1•Py displays supramolecular chirality.

Chromatographically separable ruffled non-planar isomeric octaalkylporphycenes: consequences of unsymmetrical substitution upon structure and photophysical properties

Two symmetry reduction induced unsymmetrical porphyrins (2.0.2.0) were synthesized and characterized with distinct structural, optoelectronic and nonlinear optical properties.

Hemoproteins Reconstituted with Artificial Metal Complexes as Biohybrid Catalysts

In nature, heme cofactor-containing proteins participate not only in electron transfer and O₂ storage and transport but also in biosynthesis and degradation. The simplest and representative cofactor, heme b, is bound within the heme pocket via noncovalent interaction in many hemoproteins, suggesting that the cofactor is removable from the protein, leaving a unique cavity. Since the cavity functions as a coordination sphere for heme, it is of particular interest to investigate replacement of native heme with an artificial metal complex, because the substituted metal complex will be stabilized in the heme pocket while providing alternative chemical properties. Thus, cofactor substitution has great potential for engineering of hemoproteins with alternative functions. For these studies, myoglobin has been a focus of our investigations, because it is a well-known oxygen storage hemoprotein. However, the heme pocket of myoglobin has been only arranged for stabilizing the heme-bound dioxygen, so the structure is not suitable for activation of small molecules such as H₂O₂ and O₂ as well as for binding an external substrate. Thus, the conversion of myoglobin to an enzyme-like biocatalyst has presented significant challenges. The results of our investigations have provided useful information for chemists and biologists. Our own efforts to develop functionalized myoglobin have focused on the incorporation of a chemically modified cofactor into apomyoglobin in order to (1) construct an artificial substrate-binding site near the heme pocket, (2) increase cofactor reactivity, or (3) promote a new reaction that has never before been catalyzed by a native heme enzyme. In pursuing these objectives, we first found that myoglobin reconstituted with heme having a chemically modified heme-propionate side chain at the exit of the heme pocket has peroxidase activity with respect to oxidation of phenol derivatives. Our recent investigations have succeeded in enhancing oxidation and oxygenation activities of myoglobin as well as promoting new reactions by reconstitution of myoglobin with new porphyrinoid metal complexes. Incorporation of suitable metal porphyrinoids into the heme pocket has produced artificial enzymes capable of efficiently generating reactive high valent metal-oxo and metallocarbene intermediates to achieve the catalytic hydroxylation of C(sp³)-H bonds and cyclopropanation of olefin molecules, respectively. In other efforts, we have focused on nitrobindin, an NO-binding hemoprotein, because aponitrobindin includes a β-barrel cavity, which provides a robust structure highly similar to that of the native holoprotein. It was expected that the aponitrobindin would be suitable for development as a protein scaffold for a metal complex. Recently, it was confirmed that several organometallic complexes can bind to this scaffold and function as catalysts promoting hydrogen evolution or C-C bond formation. The hydrophobic β-barrel structure plays a significant role in substrate binding as well as controlling the stereoselectivity of the reactions. Furthermore, these catalytic activities and stereoselectivities are remarkably improved by mutation-dependent modifications of the cavity structure for the artificial cofactor. This Account demonstrates how apoproteins of hemoproteins can provide useful protein scaffolds for metal complexes. Further development of these concepts will provide a useful strategy for generation of robust and useful artificial metalloenzymes.

Spin-Dependent O2 Binding to Hemoglobin

We report results of our study on the mechanism of spin-dependent O₂ binding to hemoglobin, which we represent as FePIm (Fe = iron, P = porphyrin, Im = imidazole). This involves the transition between two states, viz., the oxyhemoglobin state and the deoxyhemoglobin state. The deoxyhemoglobin state pertains to FePIm and a free O₂ molecule, while the oxyhemoglobin state pertains to an O₂ bound to FePIm. The deoxyhemoglobin and oxyhemoglobin systems have triplet and singlet total magnetizations, respectively. We found that a spin transition from triplet to quintet to singlet mediates the O₂ binding process, and this accelerates the reaction. We also found that the position of the Fe atom out of the porphyrin plane is an important indicator of O₂ affinity.

First entry into nonmetal-centred porphycenes: synthesis of a phosphorus(v) complex of octaethylporphycene

The first synthesis and structural characterization of a phosphorus(v) complex of porphycene, a constitutional isomer of porphyrin, are reported.

β-Hexaalkylporphycenes: Positional Effect of Alkyl Groups toward Design and Control of Structural and Photophysical Properties in Isomeric Hexaethylporphycenes

Two novel β-hexaalkylated porphycenes, i.e., 2,3,7,12,13,17- (HOT) and 2,3,6,12,13,16-hexaethylporphycenes (HIT) were introduced for the first time in porphycene chemistry. These were synthesized through McMurry coupling reactions of new isomeric unsymmetrically substituted triethylbipyrrole dialdehydes. The positional effects of alkyl groups could be manifested through significant alteration in structure of porphycene cores and, as a consequence their photophysical properties, not noticed in β-octaethylporphycene. HOT displays significant fluorescence accompanied by reasonable singlet oxygen generation ability.

The first synthesis of meso-dicycloalkylporphycenes: ring strain effects on structural and optical properties of isomeric porphyrins

Two novel meso-dicycloalkylporphycenes were synthesized for the first time, which showed remarkable ring-strain-induced switching of their fluorescence behaviors in the solution phase.

Spectroscopy and Tautomerization Studies of Porphycenes

Tautomerization in porphycenes, constitutional isomers of porphyrins, is strongly entangled with spectral and photophysical parameters. The intramolecular double hydrogen transfer occurring in the ground and electronically excited states leads to uncommon spectroscopic characteristics, such as depolarized emission, viscosity-dependent radiationless depopulation, and vibrational-mode-specific tunneling splittings. This review starts with documentation of the electronic spectra of porphycenes: Absorption and magnetic circular dichroism are discussed, together with their analysis based on the perimeter model. Next, photophysical characteristics are presented, setting the stage for the final part, which discusses the developments in research on tautomerism. Porphycenes have been studied in different experimental regimes: molecules in condensed phases, isolated in supersonic jets and helium nanodroplets, and, recently also on the level of single molecules investigated by optical and scanning probe microscopies. Because of the rich and detailed information obtained from these diverse investigations, porphycenes emerge as very good models for studying the complex, multidimensional phenomena involved in the process of intramolecular double hydrogen transfer.

Crossed McMurry Coupling Reactions for Porphycenic Macrocycles: Non-Statistical Selectivity and Rationalisation

Crossed McMurry reactions of bifuran- or bithiophenedicarbaldehydes with bipyrroledicarbaldehydes have been studied for the first time. Only those porphycenic macrocycles derived from homocoupled McMurry products were formed. The results are explained by using both density functional theory and electron propagator computations to model the electron affinity of the dialdehyde starting materials. It was predicted that bifuran\bithiophene cross-coupling would indeed occur, and this was demonstrated by the first synthesis of a novel dioxa,dithio hetero-porphycenoid annulene. This approach will allow the prior identification of viable substrates for related crossed McMurry reactions.

Molecular structures, redox properties, and photosubstitution of ruthenium(II) carbonyl complexes of porphycene

Two ruthenium(II) carbonyl complexes of porphycene, (carbonyl)(pyridine)(2,7,12,17-tetra-n-propylporphycenato)ruthenium(II) (1) and (carbonyl)(pyridine)(2,3,6,7,12,13,16,17-octaethylpor-phycenato)ruthenium(II) (2), have been structurally characterized by single-crystal X-ray diffraction analysis. Cyclic voltammetry has revealed that the porphycene complexes undergo multiple oxidations and reductions in dichloromethane and the reduction potentials are highly positive compared to porphyrin analogs. UV-light irradiation (400 nm or shorter wavelength region) of a benzene solution of 1 and 2 containing external pyridine leads to dissociation of the carbonyl ligand from the ruthenium(II) centers to give the corresponding bis-pyridine complexes. The identical reaction has been also studied for a porphyrin derivative (carbonyl)(pyridine)(2,3,7,8,12,13,17,18-octaethylporphyriato)ruthenum(II) (3). The first-order kinetic analysis has revealed that the photosubstitution of all of the compounds occurs in the order of 10-3 s-1 at 298 K but proceeds faster for complexes of porphycene (1 and 2) than that of porphyrin (3).

Intermolecular carbene S-H insertion catalysed by engineered myoglobin-based catalysts†

The first example of a biocatalytic strategy for the synthesis of thioethers via an intermolecular carbene S–H insertion reaction is reported.

The first example of a biocatalytic strategy for the synthesis of thioethers via an intermolecular carbene S–H insertion reaction is reported. Engineered variants of sperm whale myoglobin were found to efficiently catalyze this C–S bond forming transformation across a diverse set of aryl and alkyl mercaptan substrates and α-diazoester carbene donors, providing high conversions (60–99%) and high numbers of catalytic turnovers (1100–5400). Furthermore, the enantioselectivity of these biocatalysts could be tuned through mutation of amino acid residues within the distal pocket of the hemoprotein, leading to myoglobin variants capable of supporting asymmetric S–H insertions with up to 49% ee. Rearrangement experiments support a mechanism involving the formation of a sulfonium ylide generated upon attack of the thiol substrate to a heme-bound carbene intermediate.

β-Tetrachlorotetramethoxyporphycenes: positional effect of substituents on structure and photophysical properties

We report the regiospecific synthesis of the first chloro-substituted porphycenes as two positional isomers of β-tetrachlorotetramethoxyporphycene.

Highly diastereoselective and enantioselective olefin cyclopropanation using engineered myoglobin-based catalysts

Using rational design, an engineered myoglobin-based catalyst capable of catalyzing the cyclopropanation of aryl-substituted olefins with catalytic proficiency (up to 46,800 turnovers) and excellent diastereo- and enantioselectivity (98-99.9%) was developed. This transformation could be carried out in the presence of up to 20 g L(-1) olefin substrate with no loss in diastereo- and/or enantioselectivity. Mutagenesis and mechanistic studies support a cyclopropanation mechanism mediated by an electrophilic, heme-bound carbene species and a model is provided to rationalize the stereopreference of the protein catalyst. This work shows that myoglobin constitutes a promising and robust scaffold for the development of biocatalysts with carbene-transfer reactivity.

Rational heme protein design: all roads lead to Rome

Heme proteins are among the most abundant and important metalloproteins, exerting diverse biological functions including oxygen transport, small molecule sensing, selective C-H bond activation, nitrite reduction, and electron transfer. Rational heme protein designs focus on the modification of the heme-binding active site and the heme group, protein hybridization and domain swapping, and de novo design. These strategies not only provide us with unique advantages for illustrating the structure-property-reactivity-function (SPRF) relationship of heme proteins in nature but also endow us with the ability to create novel biocatalysts and biosensors.