Redirecting electron transfer in photosystem II from water to redox-active metal complexes

Extremozyme-Based Biosensors for Environmental Pollution Monitoring: Recent Developments

Extremozymes combine high specificity and sensitivity with the ability to withstand extreme operational conditions. This work presents an overview of extremozymes that show potential for environmental monitoring devices and outlines the latest advances in biosensors utilizing these unique molecules. The characteristics of various extremozymes described so far are presented, underlining their stability and operational conditions that make them attractive for biosensing. The biosensor design is discussed based on the detection of photosynthesis-inhibiting herbicides as a case study. Several biosensors for the detection of pesticides, heavy metals, and phenols are presented in more detail to highlight interesting substrate specificity, applications or immobilization methods. Compared to mesophilic enzymes, the integration of extremozymes in biosensors faces additional challenges related to lower availability and high production costs. The use of extremozymes in biosensing does not parallel their success in industrial applications. In recent years, the "collection" of recognition elements was enriched by extremozymes with interesting selectivity and by thermostable chimeras. The perspectives for biosensor development are exciting, considering also the progress in genetic editing for the oriented immobilization of enzymes, efficient folding, and better electron transport. Stability, production costs and immobilization at sensing interfaces must be improved to encourage wider applications of extremozymes in biosensors.

Generation of Photoelectric Responses by Photosystem II Core Complexes in the Presence of Externally Added Cytochrome c

The effect of exogenous cytochrome c (cyt c) on kinetics of photoelectric responses (Δψ) of two types of photosystem II (PSII) core complexes (intact - PSII with active water-oxidizing complex and Mn-depleted complex) reconstituted into liposomes has been investigated by direct electrometric technique. PSII complexes were localized in the proteoliposome membranes with their donor side outward. An additional electrogenic phase was observed in the kinetics of Δψ generation in response to a laser flash besides the main fast (<0.3 µs) electrogenic component due to electron transfer from the redox-active tyrosine Y_Z to the primary quinone acceptor Q_A in the presence of oxidized cyt c (cyt c³⁺) entrapped in the internal space of proteoliposomes with intact PSII complexes. This component with characteristic time τ ≈ 40 µs and relative amplitude of ~10% of the total Δψ was attributed to the vectorial electron transfer from Q_A^- to cyt c³⁺ serving as an external acceptor. An additional electrogenic component with τ ~ 70 µs and a relative amplitude of ~20% of the total Δψ also appeared in the kinetics of Δψ formation, when cyt c²⁺ was added to the suspension of proteoliposomes containing Mn-depleted PSII core complexes. This component was attributed to the electrogenic transfer of an electron from cyt c²⁺ to photooxidized tyrosine Y_Z. These data imply that cyt c³⁺ serves as a very effective exogenous electron acceptor for Q_A^- in the case of intact PSII core complexes, and cyt c²⁺ is an extremely efficient artificial electron donor for Y_Z in the Mn-depleted PSII. The obtained data on the roles of cyt c²⁺ and cyt c³⁺ as an electron donor and acceptor for PSII, respectively, can be used to develop hybrid photoelectrochemical solar energy-converting systems based on photosynthetic pigment-protein complexes.

Reassessing the rationale behind herbicide biosensors: The case of a photosystem II/redox polymer-based bioelectrode

Interfacing photosynthetic protein complexes with electrodes is frequently used for the identification of electron transfer mechanisms and the fabrication of biosensors. Binding of herbicide compounds to the terminal plastoquinone Q_B at photosystem II (PSII) causes disruption of electron flow that is associated with a diminished performance of the associated biodevice. Thus, the principle of electron transport inhibition at PSII can be used for herbicide detection and has inspired the fabrication of several biosensors for this purpose. However, the biosensor performance may reveal a more complex behavior than generally expected. As we present here for a photobioelectrode constituted by PSII embedded in a redox polymer matrix, the effect caused by inhibitors does not only impact the electron transfer from PSII but also the properties of the polymer film used for immobilization and electrical wiring of the protein complexes. Incorporation of phenolic inhibitors into the polymer film surprisingly translates into enhanced photocurrents and, in particular cases, in a higher stability of the overall electrode architecture. The achieved results stress the importance to evaluate first the possible influence of analytes of interest on the biosensor architecture as a whole and provide important insights for consideration in future design of bioelectrochemical devices.

Effect of sucrose-bound polynuclear iron oxyhydroxide nanoparticles on the efficiency of electron transport in the photosystem II membranes

Effect of water-soluble and stable sucrose-bound iron oxyhydroxide nanoparticles [Fe[III] sucrose complex (FSC)] on the efficiency of electron transport in the photosystem II membranes was studied. FSC significantly increases (by a factor 1.5) the rate of light-induced oxygen evolution in the presence of alternative electron acceptor 2,6-dichloro-p-benzoquinone (DCBQ). Without DCBQ, FSC only slightly (5%) provides the oxygen evolution. Electron transport supported by pair DCBQ + FSC is inhibited by diuron. Maximum of stimulating effect was recorded at Fe(III) concentration 5 µM. In the case of another benzoquinone electron acceptor (2-phenyl-p-benzoquinone and 2,3-dimethyl-p-benzoquinone) and 2,6-dichlorophenolindophenol, stimulating effect of FSC was not observed. Incubation of PSII membranes at different concentrations with FSC is accompanied by binding of Fe(III) by membrane components but only about 50% of iron can be extracted by membranes from Fe(III) solution at pH 6.5. This result implies the heterogeneity of FSC solution in a buffer. The heterogeneity depends on pH and decreases with its rising. At pH around 9.0 Fe(III), sucrose solution is homogeneous. The study of pH effect has shown that stimulation of electron transport is induced only by iron cations which can be bound by membranes. Not extractable iron pool cannot activate electron transfer from oxygen-evolving complex to DCBQ.

Photocurrents from photosystem II in a metal oxide hybrid system: Electron transfer pathways

We have investigated the nature of the photocurrent generated by Photosystem II (PSII), the water oxidizing enzyme, isolated from Thermosynechococcus elongatus, when immobilized on nanostructured titanium dioxide on an indium tin oxide electrode (TiO2/ITO). We investigated the properties of the photocurrent from PSII when immobilized as a monolayer versus multilayers, in the presence and absence of an inhibitor that binds to the site of the exchangeable quinone (QB) and in the presence and absence of exogenous mobile electron carriers (mediators). The findings indicate that electron transfer occurs from the first quinone (QA) directly to the electrode surface but that the electron transfer through the nanostructured metal oxide is the rate-limiting step. Redox mediators enhance the photocurrent by taking electrons from the nanostructured semiconductor surface to the ITO electrode surface not from PSII. This is demonstrated by photocurrent enhancement using a mediator incapable of accepting electrons from PSII. This model for electron transfer also explains anomalies reported in the literature using similar and related systems. The slow rate of the electron transfer step in the TiO2 is due to the energy level of electron injection into the semiconducting material being below the conduction band. This limits the usefulness of the present hybrid electrode. Strategies to overcome this kinetic limitation are discussed.

Mediatorless solar energy conversion by covalently bonded thylakoid monolayer on the glassy carbon electrode

Light reactions of photosynthesis that take place in thylakoid membranes found in plants or cyanobacteria are among the most effective ways of utilizing light. Unlike most researches that use photosystem I or photosystem II as conversion units for converting light to electricity, we have developed a simple method in which the thylakoid monolayer was covalently immobilized on the glassy carbon electrode surface. The activity of isolated thylakoid membrane was confirmed by measuring evolving oxygen under illumination. Glassy carbon surfaces were first modified with partial or full monolayers of carboxyphenyl groups by reductive C-C coupling using 4-aminobenzoic acid and aniline and then thylakoid membrane was bioconjugated through the peptide bond between amine residues of thylakoid and carboxyl groups on the surface. Surface properties of modified surfaces were characterized by cyclic voltammetry, contact angle measurements, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. Photocurrent of 230 nA cm(-2) was observed when the thylakoid monolayer was formed on the mixed monolayer of 4-carboxylpheny and benzene at applied potential of 0.4V vs. Ag/AgCl. A small photocurrent resulted when the 4-carboxyphenyl full monolayer was used. This work shows the possibility of solar energy conversion by directly employing the whole thylakoid membrane through simple surface modification.

Origin and Evolution of Water Oxidation before the Last Common Ancestor of the Cyanobacteria

Photosystem II, the water oxidizing enzyme, altered the course of evolution by filling the atmosphere with oxygen. Here, we reconstruct the origin and evolution of water oxidation at an unprecedented level of detail by studying the phylogeny of all D1 subunits, the main protein coordinating the water oxidizing cluster (Mn₄CaO₅) of Photosystem II. We show that D1 exists in several forms making well-defined clades, some of which could have evolved before the origin of water oxidation and presenting many atypical characteristics. The most ancient form is found in the genome of Gloeobacter kilaueensis JS-1 and this has a C-terminus with a higher sequence identity to D2 than to any other D1. Two other groups of early evolving D1 correspond to those expressed under prolonged far-red illumination and in darkness. These atypical D1 forms are characterized by a dramatically different Mn₄CaO₅ binding site and a Photosystem II containing such a site may assemble an unconventional metal cluster. The first D1 forms with a full set of ligands to the Mn₄CaO₅ cluster are grouped with D1 proteins expressed only under low oxygen concentrations and the latest evolving form is the dominant type of D1 found in all cyanobacteria and plastids. In addition, we show that the plastid ancestor had a D1 more similar to those in early branching Synechococcus. We suggest each one of these forms of D1 originated from transitional forms at different stages toward the innovation and optimization of water oxidation before the last common ancestor of all known cyanobacteria.

Direct electron transfer from photosystem II to hematite in a hybrid photoelectrochemical cell

A hybrid photoanode integrating photosystem II with a hematite film is constructed for photoelectrochemical water oxidation.

Photosystem I (PSI)/Photosystem II (PSII)-based photo-bioelectrochemical cells revealing directional generation of photocurrents

Layered assemblies of photosystem I, PSI, and/or photosystem II, PSII, on ITO electrodes are constructed using a layer-by-layer deposition process, where poly N,N'-dibenzyl-4,4'-bipyridinium (poly-benzyl viologen, PBV(2+) ) is used as an inter-protein "glue". While the layered assembly of PSI generates an anodic photocurrent only in the presence of a sacrificial electron donor system, such as dichlorophenol indophenol (DCPIP)/ascorbate, the PSII-modified electrode leads, upon irradiation, to the formation of an anodic photocurrent (while evolving oxygen), in the absence of any sacrificial component. The photocurrent is generated by transferring the electrons from the PSII units to the PBV(2+) redox polymer. The charge-separated species allow, then, the injection of the electrons to the electrode, with the concomitant evolution of O2 . A layered assembly, consisting of a PSI layer attached to a layer of PSII by the redox polymer PBV(2+) , leads to an anodic photocurrent that is 2-fold higher, as compared to the anodic photocurrent generated by a PSII-modified electrode. This observation is attributed to an enhanced charge separation in the two-photosystem assembly. By the further nano-engineering of the two photosystems on the electrode using two different redox polymers, vectorial electron transfer to the electrode is demonstrated, resulting in a ca. 6-fold enhancement in the photocurrent. The reversed bi-layer assembly, consisting of a PSII layer linked to a layer of PSI by the PBV(2+) redox polymer, yields, upon irradiation, an inefficient cathodic current. This observation is attributed to a mixture of photoinduced electron transfer reactions of opposing effects on the photocurrent directions in the two-photosystem assembly.

Covalent immobilization of oriented photosystem II on a nanostructured electrode for solar water oxidation

Photosystem II (PSII) offers a biological and sustainable route of photochemical water oxidation to O2 and can provide protons and electrons for the generation of solar fuels, such as H2. We present a rational strategy to electrostatically improve the orientation of PSII from a thermophilic cyanobacterium, Thermosynechococcus elongatus , on a nanostructured indium tin oxide (ITO) electrode and to covalently immobilize PSII on the electrode. The ITO electrode was modified with a self-assembled monolayer (SAM) of phosphonic acid ITO linkers with a dangling carboxylate moiety. The negatively charged carboxylate attracts the positive dipole on the electron acceptor side of PSII via Coulomb interactions. Covalent attachment of PSII in its electrostatically improved orientation to the SAM-modified ITO electrode was accomplished via an amide bond to further enhance red-light-driven, direct electron transfer and stability of the PSII hybrid photoelectrode.

Thermal decomposition of [Co(en)3][Fe(CN)6]∙ 2H2O: Topotactic dehydration process, valence and spin exchange mechanism elucidation

BACKGROUND

The Prussian blue analogues represent well-known and extensively studied group of coordination species which has many remarkable applications due to their ion-exchange, electron transfer or magnetic properties. Among them, Co-Fe Prussian blue analogues have been extensively studied due to the photoinduced magnetization. Surprisingly, their suitability as precursors for solid-state synthesis of magnetic nanoparticles is almost unexplored. In this paper, the mechanism of thermal decomposition of [Co(en)3][Fe(CN)6] ∙∙ 2H2O (1a) is elucidated, including the topotactic dehydration, valence and spins exchange mechanisms suggestion and the formation of a mixture of CoFe2O4-Co3O4 (3:1) as final products of thermal degradation.

RESULTS

The course of thermal decomposition of 1a in air atmosphere up to 600°C was monitored by TG/DSC techniques, (57)Fe Mössbauer and IR spectroscopy. As first, the topotactic dehydration of 1a to the hemihydrate [Co(en)3][Fe(CN)6] ∙∙ 1/2H2O (1b) occurred with preserving the single-crystal character as was confirmed by the X-ray diffraction analysis. The consequent thermal decomposition proceeded in further four stages including intermediates varying in valence and spin states of both transition metal ions in their structures, i.e. [Fe(II)(en)2(μ-NC)Co(III)(CN)4], Fe(III)(NH2CH2CH3)2(μ-NC)2Co(II)(CN)3] and Fe(III)[Co(II)(CN)5], which were suggested mainly from (57)Fe Mössbauer, IR spectral and elemental analyses data. Thermal decomposition was completed at 400°C when superparamagnetic phases of CoFe2O4 and Co3O4 in the molar ratio of 3:1 were formed. During further temperature increase (450 and 600°C), the ongoing crystallization process gave a new ferromagnetic phase attributed to the CoFe2O4-Co3O4 nanocomposite particles. Their formation was confirmed by XRD and TEM analyses. In-field (5 K / 5 T) Mössbauer spectrum revealed canting of Fe(III) spin in almost fully inverse spinel structure of CoFe2O4.

CONCLUSIONS

It has been found that the thermal decomposition of [Co(en)3][Fe(CN)6] ∙∙ 2H2O in air atmosphere is a gradual multiple process accompanied by the formation of intermediates with different composition, stereochemistry, oxidation as well as spin states of both the central transition metals. The decomposition is finished above 400°C and the ongoing heating to 600°C results in the formation of CoFe2O4-Co3O4 nanocomposite particles as the final decomposition product.