1
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Bao Y. Polymerization-Mediated Through-Space Charge Transfer: An Emerging Strategy for Light-Emitting Materials. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2024. [PMID: 38252874 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.3c03376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2024]
Abstract
Through-space charge transfer (TSCT) has attracted increasing attention owing to its great potential in designing efficient light-emitting molecules and polymers. Complementary to through-bond charge transfer and Förster resonance energy transfer, TSCT offers an alternative approach for the manipulation of molecular fluorescence. Recently, the synergy between TSCT and polymer systems through polymerization-mediated charge transfer has fostered the advancements of innovative light-emitting functional materials featuring thermally activated delayed fluorescence and/or aggregation-induced emission. This perspective highlights the significant progress in tailoring emission properties through structural engineering of donor and acceptor groups within polymeric systems, leveraging the TSCT mechanism. This strategy has transcended the limitations of traditional charge transfer systems with its tolerance to extended donor-acceptor distance, paving the way for novel applications beyond organic light-emitting diodes. The discussion concludes with a forward-looking analysis of potential future research trajectories in the field of polymerization-mediated charge transfer for developing next-generation light-emitting materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yinyin Bao
- Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zurich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 1, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
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2
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Fan S, Takada T, Maruyama A, Fujitsuka M, Kawai K. Programmed Control of Fluorescence Blinking Patterns based on Electron Transfer in DNA. Chemistry 2023; 29:e202203552. [PMID: 36601797 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202203552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2022] [Revised: 01/01/2023] [Accepted: 01/02/2023] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Fluorescence imaging uses changes in the fluorescence intensity and emission wavelength to analyze multiple targets simultaneously. To increase the number of targets that can be identified simultaneously, fluorescence blinking can be used as an additional parameter. To understand and eventually control blinking, we used DNA as a platform to elucidate the processes of electron transfer (ET) leading to blinking, down to the rate constants. With a fixed ET distance, various blinking patterns were observed depending on the DNA sequence between the donor and acceptor units of the DNA platform. The blinking pattern was successfully described with a combination of ET rate constants. Therefore, molecules with various blinking patterns can be developed by tuning ET. It is expected that the number of targets that can be analyzed simultaneously will increase by the power of the number of blinking patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuya Fan
- SANKEN (The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research), Osaka University, Mihogaoka 8-1, Ibaraki, Osaka, 567-0047, Japan
| | - Tadao Takada
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, University of Hyogo, 2167 Shosha, Himeji, Hyogo, 671-2280, Japan
| | - Atsushi Maruyama
- Department of Life Science and Technology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 4259 B-57 Nagatsuta, Midori-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 226-8501, Japan
| | - Mamoru Fujitsuka
- SANKEN (The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research), Osaka University, Mihogaoka 8-1, Ibaraki, Osaka, 567-0047, Japan
| | - Kiyohiko Kawai
- Department of Life Science and Technology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 4259 B-57 Nagatsuta, Midori-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 226-8501, Japan
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3
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Fan S, Takada T, Maruyama A, Fujitsuka M, Kawai K. Large Heterogeneity Observed in Single Molecule Measurements of Intramolecular Electron Transfer Rates through DNA. BULLETIN OF THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY OF JAPAN 2022. [DOI: 10.1246/bcsj.20220220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Shuya Fan
- SANKEN (The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research), Osaka University, 8-1 Mihogaoka, Ibaraki, Osaka 567-0047, Japan
| | - Tadao Takada
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, University of Hyogo, 2167 Shosha, Himeji, Hyogo 671-2280, Japan
| | - Atsushi Maruyama
- Department of Life Science and Technology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 4259 B-57 Nagatsuta, Midori-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa 226-8501, Japan
| | - Mamoru Fujitsuka
- SANKEN (The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research), Osaka University, 8-1 Mihogaoka, Ibaraki, Osaka 567-0047, Japan
| | - Kiyohiko Kawai
- SANKEN (The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research), Osaka University, 8-1 Mihogaoka, Ibaraki, Osaka 567-0047, Japan
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4
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Simisi Clovis N, Alam P, Kumar Chand A, Sardana D, Firoz Khan M, Sen S. Molecular Crowders Modulate Ligand Binding Affinity to G-Quadruplex DNA by Decelerating Ligand Association. J Photochem Photobiol A Chem 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotochem.2022.114432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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5
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Clovis NS, Sen S. G-Tetrad-Selective Ligand Binding Kinetics in G-Quadruplex DNA Probed with Fluorescence Correlation Spectroscopy. J Phys Chem B 2022; 126:6007-6015. [PMID: 35939531 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.2c04181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Probing the kinetics of ligand binding to biomolecules is of paramount interest in biology and pharmacology. Measurements of such kinetic processes provide information on the rate-determining steps that control the binding affinity of ligands to biomolecules, thereby predicting the mechanism of the molecular interaction. In this context, ligand binding to G-quadruplex DNA (GqDNA) structures has attracted tremendous attention primarily because of their use in possible anticancer therapy. Although a large number of G-quadruplex-specific ligands have been proposed, probing the kinetics of G-tetrad-selective binding of (multiple) ligands within a G-quadruplex DNA (GqDNA) structure remains challenging. Most of the earlier studies focused on the thermodynamics of ligand binding; however, the kinetics of ligand association and dissociation with GqDNA, particularly binding of multiple ligands within a GqDNA structure, have not been explored. Here, we propose a simple fluorescence correlation spectroscopy-based method that measures the G-tetrad-selective association and dissociation rates of ligands within a GqDNA structure by correlating the fluorescence fluctuations of a site-specific (5' or 3' end-labeled) fluorophore (Cy3) in GqDNA due to quenching of Cy3 fluorescence, induced by the ligand binding to the G-tetrads. We show that well-known GqDNA ligands, BRACO19, TMPyP4, Hoechst 33258, and Hoechst 33342, have G-tetrad-selective association and dissociation rates, which suggest site-dependent variation of free energy barriers for binding/unbinding of the ligands with GqDNA. We also show that the measured kinetic rates depend not only on the G-tetrad site (5' vs 3' end) but also on the ligand and GqDNA structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ndege Simisi Clovis
- Spectroscopy Laboratory, School of Physical Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India
| | - Sobhan Sen
- Spectroscopy Laboratory, School of Physical Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India
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6
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Electron-transfer kinetics through nucleic acids untangled by single-molecular fluorescence blinking. Chem 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chempr.2022.07.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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7
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Kawai K, Fujitsuka M. Single-molecule fluorescence kinetic sandwich assay using a DNA sequencer. CHEM LETT 2022. [DOI: 10.1246/cl.210726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kiyohiko Kawai
- SANKEN (The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research), Osaka University, Mihogaoka 8-1, Ibaraki, Osaka 567-0047, Japan
| | - Mamoru Fujitsuka
- SANKEN (The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research), Osaka University, Mihogaoka 8-1, Ibaraki, Osaka 567-0047, Japan
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8
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Xu J, Fan S, Xu L, Maruyama A, Fujitsuka M, Kawai K. Control of Triplet Blinking Using Cyclooctatetraene to Access the Dynamics of Biomolecules at the Single‐Molecule Level. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202101606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jie Xu
- The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research (SANKEN) Osaka University Mihogaoka 8-1, Ibaraki Osaka 567-0047 Japan
| | - Shuya Fan
- The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research (SANKEN) Osaka University Mihogaoka 8-1, Ibaraki Osaka 567-0047 Japan
| | - Lei Xu
- The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research (SANKEN) Osaka University Mihogaoka 8-1, Ibaraki Osaka 567-0047 Japan
| | - Atsushi Maruyama
- Department of Life Science and Technology Tokyo Institute of Technology 4259 B-57 Nagatsuta, Midori-ku Yokohama Kanagawa 226-8501 Japan
| | - Mamoru Fujitsuka
- The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research (SANKEN) Osaka University Mihogaoka 8-1, Ibaraki Osaka 567-0047 Japan
| | - Kiyohiko Kawai
- The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research (SANKEN) Osaka University Mihogaoka 8-1, Ibaraki Osaka 567-0047 Japan
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9
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Xu J, Fan S, Xu L, Maruyama A, Fujitsuka M, Kawai K. Control of Triplet Blinking Using Cyclooctatetraene to Access the Dynamics of Biomolecules at the Single‐Molecule Level. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2021; 60:12941-12948. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.202101606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2021] [Revised: 03/25/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jie Xu
- The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research (SANKEN) Osaka University Mihogaoka 8-1, Ibaraki Osaka 567-0047 Japan
| | - Shuya Fan
- The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research (SANKEN) Osaka University Mihogaoka 8-1, Ibaraki Osaka 567-0047 Japan
| | - Lei Xu
- The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research (SANKEN) Osaka University Mihogaoka 8-1, Ibaraki Osaka 567-0047 Japan
| | - Atsushi Maruyama
- Department of Life Science and Technology Tokyo Institute of Technology 4259 B-57 Nagatsuta, Midori-ku Yokohama Kanagawa 226-8501 Japan
| | - Mamoru Fujitsuka
- The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research (SANKEN) Osaka University Mihogaoka 8-1, Ibaraki Osaka 567-0047 Japan
| | - Kiyohiko Kawai
- The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research (SANKEN) Osaka University Mihogaoka 8-1, Ibaraki Osaka 567-0047 Japan
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10
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Ye Z, Du Y, Pan X, Zheng X, Xue J. Electron transfer from guanosine to the lowest triplet excited state of 4-nitroindole through hydrogen-bonded complex. J Photochem Photobiol A Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotochem.2020.113106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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11
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Kawai K, Fujitsuka M, Maruyama A. Single-Molecule Study of Redox Reaction Kinetics by Observing Fluorescence Blinking. Acc Chem Res 2021; 54:1001-1010. [PMID: 33539066 DOI: 10.1021/acs.accounts.0c00754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Recent advances in fluorescence microscopy allow us to track chemical reactions at the single-molecule level. Single-molecule measurements make it possible to minimize the amount of sample needed for analysis and diagnosis. Signal amplification is often applied to ultralow-level biomarker detection. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is used to detect DNA/RNA, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) can sensitively probe antigen-antibody interactions. While these techniques are brilliant and will continue to be used in the future, single-molecule-level measurements would allow us to reduce the time and cost needed to amplify signals.The kinetics of chemical reactions have been studied mainly using ensemble-averaged methods. However, they can hardly distinguish time-dependent fluctuations and static heterogeneity of the kinetics. The information hidden in ensemble-averaged measurements would be extractable from a single-molecule experiment. Thus, single-molecule measurement would provide unique opportunities to investigate unrevealed phenomena and to elucidate the questions in chemistry, physics, and life sciences. Redox reaction, which is triggered by electron transfer, is among the most fundamental and ubiquitous chemical reactions. The redox reaction of a fluorescent molecule results in the formation of radical ions, which are normally nonemissive. In single-molecule-level measurements, the redox reaction causes the fluctuation of fluorescence signals between the bright ON-state and the dark OFF-state, in a phenomenon called blinking. The duration of the OFF-state (τOFF) corresponds to the lifetime of the radical ion state, and its reaction kinetics can be measured as 1/τOFF. Thus, the kinetics of redox reactions of fluorescent molecules can be accessed at the single-molecule level by monitoring fluorescence blinking. One of the key aspects of single-molecule analysis based on blinking is its robustness. A blinking signal with a certain regular pattern enables single fluorescent molecules to be distinguished and resolved from the random background signal.In this Account, we summarize the recent studies on the single-molecule measurement of redox reaction kinetics, with a focus on our group's recent progress. We first introduce the control of redox blinking to increase the photostability of fluorescent molecules. We then demonstrate the control of redox blinking, which allows us to detect target DNA by monitoring the function of a molecular beacon-type probe, and we investigate antigen-antibody interactions at the single-molecule level. By tracing the time-dependent changes in blinking patterns, redox blinking is shown to be adaptable to tracking the structural switching dynamics of RNA, the preQ1 riboswitch. This Account ends with a discussion of our ongoing work on the control of fluorescent blinking. We also discuss the development of devices that allow single-molecule-level analysis in a high-throughput fashion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kiyohiko Kawai
- The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research (SANKEN), Osaka University, Mihogaoka 8-1, Ibaraki, Osaka 567-0047, Japan
| | - Mamoru Fujitsuka
- The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research (SANKEN), Osaka University, Mihogaoka 8-1, Ibaraki, Osaka 567-0047, Japan
| | - Atsushi Maruyama
- Department of Life Science and Technology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 4259 B-57 Nagatsuta, Midori-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa 226-8501, Japan
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12
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Kawai K, Maruyama A. Kinetics of Photoinduced Reactions at the Single‐Molecule Level: The KACB Method. Chemistry 2020; 26:7740-7746. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.202000439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2020] [Revised: 02/20/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Kiyohiko Kawai
- The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research (SANKEN)Osaka University Mihogaoka 8-1 Ibaraki, Osaka 567-0047 Japan
| | - Atsushi Maruyama
- Department of Life Science and TechnologyTokyo Institute of Technology 4259 B-57 Nagatsuta Midori-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa 226-8501 Japan
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13
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Miyata T, Shimada N, Maruyama A, Kawai K. Fluorescence Redox Blinking Adaptable to Structural Analysis of Nucleic Acids. Chemistry 2018; 24:6755-6761. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.201705668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2017] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Takafumi Miyata
- Department of Life Science and Technology; Tokyo Institute of Technology; 4259 B-57 Nagatsuta, Midori-ku, Yokohama Kanagawa 226-8501 Japan
| | - Naohiko Shimada
- Department of Life Science and Technology; Tokyo Institute of Technology; 4259 B-57 Nagatsuta, Midori-ku, Yokohama Kanagawa 226-8501 Japan
| | - Atsushi Maruyama
- Department of Life Science and Technology; Tokyo Institute of Technology; 4259 B-57 Nagatsuta, Midori-ku, Yokohama Kanagawa 226-8501 Japan
| | - Kiyohiko Kawai
- The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research (SANKEN); Osaka University; Mihogaoka 8-1, Ibaraki Osaka 567-0047 Japan
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14
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Kawai K, Miyata T, Shimada N, Ito S, Miyasaka H, Maruyama A. Single-Molecule Monitoring of the Structural Switching Dynamics of Nucleic Acids through Controlling Fluorescence Blinking. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2017; 56:15329-15333. [PMID: 28990725 PMCID: PMC5725658 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201708705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2017] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Single-molecule fluorescence resonance energy transfer (smFRET) is a powerful tool to investigate the dynamics of biomolecular events in real time. However, it requires two fluorophores and can be applied only to dynamics that accompany large changes in distance between the molecules. Herein, we introduce a method for kinetic analysis based on control of fluorescence blinking (KACB), a general approach to investigate the dynamics of biomolecules by using a single fluorophore. By controlling the kinetics of the redox reaction the blinking kinetics or pattern can be controlled to be affected by microenvironmental changes around a fluorophore (rKACB), thereby enabling real-time single-molecule measurement of the structure-changing dynamics of nucleic acids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kiyohiko Kawai
- The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research (SANKEN), Osaka University, Mihogaoka 8-1, Ibaraki, Osaka, 567-0047, Japan
| | - Takafumi Miyata
- Department of Life Science and Technology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 4259 B-57 Nagatsuta, Midori-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 226-8501, Japan
| | - Naohiko Shimada
- Department of Life Science and Technology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 4259 B-57 Nagatsuta, Midori-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 226-8501, Japan
| | - Syoji Ito
- Division of Frontier Materials Science and Center for Promotion of Advanced Interdisciplinary Research, Graduate School of Engineering Science, Osaka University, Toyonaka, 567-8531, 226-8501, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Miyasaka
- Division of Frontier Materials Science and Center for Promotion of Advanced Interdisciplinary Research, Graduate School of Engineering Science, Osaka University, Toyonaka, 567-8531, 226-8501, Japan
| | - Atsushi Maruyama
- Department of Life Science and Technology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 4259 B-57 Nagatsuta, Midori-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 226-8501, Japan
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15
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Kawai K, Miyata T, Shimada N, Ito S, Miyasaka H, Maruyama A. Single-Molecule Monitoring of the Structural Switching Dynamics of Nucleic Acids through Controlling Fluorescence Blinking. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201708705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Kiyohiko Kawai
- The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research (SANKEN); Osaka University; Mihogaoka 8-1 Ibaraki Osaka 567-0047 Japan
| | - Takafumi Miyata
- Department of Life Science and Technology; Tokyo Institute of Technology; 4259 B-57 Nagatsuta Midori-ku, Yokohama Kanagawa 226-8501 Japan
| | - Naohiko Shimada
- Department of Life Science and Technology; Tokyo Institute of Technology; 4259 B-57 Nagatsuta Midori-ku, Yokohama Kanagawa 226-8501 Japan
| | - Syoji Ito
- Division of Frontier Materials Science and Center for Promotion of Advanced Interdisciplinary Research; Graduate School of Engineering Science; Osaka University; Toyonaka, 567-8531 226-8501 Japan
| | - Hiroshi Miyasaka
- Division of Frontier Materials Science and Center for Promotion of Advanced Interdisciplinary Research; Graduate School of Engineering Science; Osaka University; Toyonaka, 567-8531 226-8501 Japan
| | - Atsushi Maruyama
- Department of Life Science and Technology; Tokyo Institute of Technology; 4259 B-57 Nagatsuta Midori-ku, Yokohama Kanagawa 226-8501 Japan
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16
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Kawai K, Maruyama A. Triple helix conformation-specific blinking of Cy3 in DNA. Chem Commun (Camb) 2015; 51:4861-4. [PMID: 25697775 DOI: 10.1039/c5cc00607d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
We report that Cy3 undergoes triple helix conformation-specific blinking in DNA. Blinking patterns were affected by the stabilization of the Hoogsteen base-pair, suggesting that not only the presence but also the fluctuating behaviour of the triple helix can be monitored by the changes in the Cy3 blinking patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kiyohiko Kawai
- The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research, Osaka University, Mihogaoka 8-1, Ibaraki, Osaka 5670047, Japan.
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17
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Kawai K, Higashiguchi K, Maruyama A, Majima T. DNA Microenvironment Monitored by Controlling Redox Blinking. Chemphyschem 2015; 16:3590-4. [DOI: 10.1002/cphc.201500793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2015] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Kiyohiko Kawai
- The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research; Osaka University; Mihogaoka 8-1, Ibaraki Osaka 567-0047 Japan
- PRESTO (Japan) Science and Technology Agency; 4-1-8 Honcho, Kawaguchi Saitama 332-0012 Japan
| | - Kenji Higashiguchi
- PRESTO (Japan) Science and Technology Agency; 4-1-8 Honcho, Kawaguchi Saitama 332-0012 Japan
- Department of Synthetic Chemistry and Biological Chemistry; Graduate School of Engineering; Kyoto University; Katsura, Nishikyo-ku Kyoto 615-8510 Japan
| | - Atsushi Maruyama
- Department of Biomolecular Engineering; Graduate School of Bioscience and Biotechnology; Tokyo Institute of Technology; Nagatsuta 4259, Midori-ku Yokohama 226-8501 Japan
| | - Tetsuro Majima
- The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research; Osaka University; Mihogaoka 8-1, Ibaraki Osaka 567-0047 Japan
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18
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Zhu A, Luo Z, Ding C, Li B, Zhou S, Wang R, Tian Y. A two-photon "turn-on" fluorescent probe based on carbon nanodots for imaging and selective biosensing of hydrogen sulfide in live cells and tissues. Analyst 2015; 139:1945-52. [PMID: 24575421 DOI: 10.1039/c3an02086j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Determination of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) in live cells and tissues is still a challenge for evaluating the key roles that H2S plays in physiological and pathological processes. In this work, a "turn-on" two-photon fluorescent (TPF) sensor for H2S is developed, in which carbon nanodot (C-Dot) was employed as a two-photon fluorophore due to its large two-photon absorption cross-section (σ), and AE-TPEA-Cu(2+) complex [AE-TPEA = N-(2-aminoethyl)-N,N,N'-tris(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)ethane-1,2-diamine] was first designed as a specific receptor for H2S. The fluorescence of C-Dot conjugated with AE-TPEA (C-Dot-TPEA) was quenched upon the addition of Cu(2+). Then, the fluorescence was restored after the addition of H2S, because Cu(2+) could be released from TPEA binding site when H2S interacted with the Cu(2+) ion. The designed C-Dot-TPEA-Cu(2+) fluorescent sensor exhibited high specificity for H2S over biothiols, sulfur-containing compounds, reactive oxygen species (ROS), and other biological interferences. Meanwhile, a broad linear range from 5 μM to 100 μM was obtained and the detection limit was achieved to 0.7 μM. In addition, the C-Dot-based TPF probe exhibited bright two-photon fluorescence, favourable photostability against light illumination and pH change, and low cytotoxicity. Accordingly, the nanohybridized TPF sensor with high selectivity and sensitivity, as well as the fascinating properties of C-Dot themselves, successfully provided a new way for TPF imaging and biosensing of H2S in live cells and tissues. We believe this is the first report of TPF imaging and biosensing of H2S in live cells and tissues using a specially engineered C-Dot-based nanosystem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anwei Zhu
- Department of Chemistry, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China.
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19
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Han Y, Ding C, Zhou J, Tian Y. Single Probe for Imaging and Biosensing of pH, Cu(2+) Ions, and pH/Cu(2+) in Live Cells with Ratiometric Fluorescence Signals. Anal Chem 2015; 87:5333-9. [PMID: 25898074 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.5b00628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
It is very essential to disentangle the complicated inter-relationship between pH and Cu in the signal transduction and homeostasis. To this end, reporters that can display distinct signals to pH and Cu are highly valuable. Unfortunately, there is still no report on the development of biosensors that can simultaneously respond to pH and Cu(2+), to the best of our knowledge. In this work, we developed a single fluorescent probe, AuNC@FITC@DEAC (AuNC, gold cluster; FITC, fluorescein isothiocyanate; DEAC, 7-diethylaminocoumarin-3-carboxylic acid), for biosensing of pH, Cu(2+), and pH/Cu(2+) with different ratiometric fluorescent signals. First, 2,2',2″-(2,2',2″-nitrilotris(ethane-2,1-diyl)tris((pyridin-2-yl-methyl)azanediyl))triethanethiol (TPAASH) was designed for specific recognition of Cu(2+), as well as for organic ligand to synthesize fluorescent AuNCs. Then, pH-sensitive molecule, FITC emitting at 518 nm, and inner reference molecule, DEAC with emission peak at 472 nm, were simultaneously conjugated on the surface of AuNCs emitting at 722 nm, thus, constructing a single fluorescent probe, AuNC@FITC@DEAC, to sensing pH, Cu(2+), and pH/Cu(2+) excited by 405 nm light. The developed probe exhibited high selectivity and accuracy for independent determination of pH and Cu(2+) against reactive oxygen species (ROS), other metal ions, amino acids, and even copper-containing proteins. The AuNC-based inorganic-organic probe with good cell-permeability and high biocompatibility was eventually applied in monitoring both pH and Cu(2+) and in understanding the interplaying roles of Cu(2+) and pH in live cells by ratiometric multicolor fluorescent imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingying Han
- †Department of Chemistry, Tongji University, Siping Road 1239, Shanghai 200092, People's Republic of China
| | - Changqin Ding
- †Department of Chemistry, Tongji University, Siping Road 1239, Shanghai 200092, People's Republic of China
| | - Jie Zhou
- †Department of Chemistry, Tongji University, Siping Road 1239, Shanghai 200092, People's Republic of China
| | - Yang Tian
- †Department of Chemistry, Tongji University, Siping Road 1239, Shanghai 200092, People's Republic of China.,‡Department of Chemistry, School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, East China Normal University, North Zhongshan Road 3663, Shanghai 200062, People's Republic of China
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20
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Heck A, Woiczikowski PB, Kubař T, Welke K, Niehaus T, Giese B, Skourtis S, Elstner M, Steinbrecher TB. Fragment Orbital Based Description of Charge Transfer in Peptides Including Backbone Orbitals. J Phys Chem B 2014; 118:4261-72. [DOI: 10.1021/jp408907g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Heck
- Department
for Theoretical Chemical Biology, Institute for Physical Chemistry, Kaiserstrasse 12, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - P. Benjamin Woiczikowski
- Department
for Theoretical Chemical Biology, Institute for Physical Chemistry, Kaiserstrasse 12, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Tomáš Kubař
- Department
for Theoretical Chemical Biology, Institute for Physical Chemistry, Kaiserstrasse 12, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Kai Welke
- Department
for Theoretical Chemical Biology, Institute for Physical Chemistry, Kaiserstrasse 12, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Thomas Niehaus
- Department
of Physics, University of Regensburg, 93053 Regensburg, Germany
| | - Bernd Giese
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Fribourg, Chemin du Musee 9, CH-1700 Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Spiros Skourtis
- Department
of Physics, University of Cyprus, PO Box 20537, Nicosia 1678, Cyprus
| | - Marcus Elstner
- Department
for Theoretical Chemical Biology, Institute for Physical Chemistry, Kaiserstrasse 12, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Thomas B. Steinbrecher
- Department
for Theoretical Chemical Biology, Institute for Physical Chemistry, Kaiserstrasse 12, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
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21
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Kawai K, Koshimo T, Maruyama A, Majima T. Blinking triggered by the change in the solvent accessibility of a fluorescent molecule. Chem Commun (Camb) 2014; 50:10478-81. [DOI: 10.1039/c4cc00377b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The more a fluorescent molecule is exposed to a solvent, the faster its triplet excited state is quenched by molecular oxygen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kiyohiko Kawai
- The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research
- Osaka University
- Ibaraki, Japan
- PRESTO
- Japan Science and Technology Agency
| | - Takeshi Koshimo
- The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research
- Osaka University
- Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Atsushi Maruyama
- Department of Biomolecular Engineering
- Graduate School of Bioscience and Biotechnology
- Tokyo Institute of Technology
- Midori-ku, Japan
| | - Tetsuro Majima
- The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research
- Osaka University
- Ibaraki, Japan
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22
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Photoinduced Charge-Separation in DNA. PHOTOINDUCED PHENOMENA IN NUCLEIC ACIDS II 2014; 356:165-82. [DOI: 10.1007/128_2013_525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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23
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Metal complex oligomer and polymer wires on electrodes: Tactical constructions and versatile functionalities. POLYMER 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymer.2013.04.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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24
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Kawai K, Majima T, Maruyama A. Detection of single-nucleotide variations by monitoring the blinking of fluorescence induced by charge transfer in DNA. Chembiochem 2013; 14:1430-3. [PMID: 23846860 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201300380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2013] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Charge transfer dynamics in DNA: Photo-induced charge separation and charge-recombination dynamics in DNA was assessed by monitoring the blinking of fluorescence. Single nucleotide variations, mismatch and one base deletion, were differentiated based on the length of the off-time of the blinking, which corresponds to the lifetime of the charge-separated state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kiyohiko Kawai
- The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research, Osaka University, Mihogaoka 8-1, Ibaraki, Japan.
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25
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Ghosh S, Chattoraj S, Mondal T, Bhattacharyya K. Dynamics in cytoplasm, nucleus, and lipid droplet of a live CHO cell: time-resolved confocal microscopy. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2013; 29:7975-7982. [PMID: 23705762 DOI: 10.1021/la400840n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Different regions of a single live Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cell are probed by time-resolved confocal microscopy. We used coumarin 153 (C153) as a probe. The dye localizes in the cytoplasm, nucleus, and lipid droplets, as is clearly revealed by the image. The fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS) data shows that the microviscosity of lipid droplets is ~34 ± 3 cP. The microviscosities of nucleus and cytoplasm are found to be 13 ± 1 and 14.5 ± 1 cP, respectively. The average solvation time (<τs>) in the lipid droplets (3600 ± 50 ps) is slower than that in the nucleus (<τs> = 750 ± 50 ps) and cytoplasm (<τs> = 1100 ± 50 ps). From the position of emission maxima of C153, the polarity of the nucleus is estimated to be similar to that of a mixture containing 26% DMSO in triacetin (η ~ 11.2 cP, ε ~ 26.2). The cytoplasm resembles a mixture of 18% DMSO in triacetin (η ∼ 12.6 cP, ε ∼ 21.9). The polarity of lipid droplets is less than that of pure triacetin (η ~ 21.7 cP, ε ~ 7.11).
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Affiliation(s)
- Shirsendu Ghosh
- Department of Physical Chemistry, Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science, Jadavpur, Kolkata 700032, India
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26
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Zhang Y, Yuan S, Lu R, Yu A. Ultrafast fluorescence quenching dynamics of Atto655 in the presence of N-acetyltyrosine and N-acetyltryptophan in aqueous solution: proton-coupled electron transfer versus electron transfer. J Phys Chem B 2013; 117:7308-16. [PMID: 23721323 DOI: 10.1021/jp404466f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
We studied the ultrafast fluorescence quenching dynamics of Atto655 in the presence of N-acetyltyrosine (AcTyr) and N-acetyltryptophan (AcTrp) in aqueous solution with femtosecond transient absorption spectroscopy. We found that the charge-transfer rate between Atto655 and AcTyr is about 240 times smaller than that between Atto655 and AcTrp. The pH value and D2O dependences of the excited-state decay kinetics of Atto655 in the presence of AcTyr and AcTrp reveal that the quenching of Atto655 fluorescence by AcTyr in aqueous solution is via a proton-coupled electron-transfer (PCET) process and that the quenching of Atto655 fluorescence by AcTrp in aqueous solution is via an electron-transfer process. With the version of the semiclassical Marcus ET theory, we derived that the electronic coupling constant for the PCET reaction between Atto655 and AcTyr in aqueous solution is 8.3 cm(-1), indicating that the PCET reaction between Atto655 and AcTyr in aqueous solution is nonadiabatic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, Renmin University of China, Beijing 100872, People's Republic of China
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27
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Sakamoto R, Katagiri S, Maeda H, Nishihara H. Triarylamine-conjugated Bis(terpyridine)–Iron(II) Complex Wires: Rapid and Long-range Electron-transport Ability. CHEM LETT 2013. [DOI: 10.1246/cl.130083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ryota Sakamoto
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo
| | - Shunsuke Katagiri
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo
| | - Hiroaki Maeda
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo
| | - Hiroshi Nishihara
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo
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28
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Toppari JJ, Wirth J, Garwe F, Stranik O, Csaki A, Bergmann J, Paa W, Fritzsche W. Plasmonic coupling and long-range transfer of an excitation along a DNA nanowire. ACS NANO 2013; 7:1291-1298. [PMID: 23305550 DOI: 10.1021/nn304789w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
We demonstrate an excitation transfer along a fluorescently labeled dsDNA nanowire over a length of several micrometers. Launching of the excitation is done by exciting a localized surface plasmon mode of a 40 nm silver nanoparticle by 800 nm femtosecond laser pulses via two-photon absorption. The plasmonic mode is subsequently coupled or transformed to excitation in the nanowire in contact with the particle and propagated along it, inducing bleaching of the dyes on its way. In situ as well as ex situ fluorescence microscopy is utilized to observe the phenomenon. In addition, transfer of the excitation along the nanowire to another nanoparticle over a separation of 5.7 μm was clearly observed. The nature of the excitation coupling and transfer could not be fully resolved here, but injection of an electron into the DNA from the excited nanoparticle and subsequent coupled transfer of charge (Dexter) and delocalized exciton (Frenkel) is the most probable mechanism. However, a direct plasmonic or optical coupling and energy transfer along the nanowire cannot be totally ruled out either. By further studies the observed phenomenon could be utilized in novel molecular systems, providing a long-needed communication method between molecular devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Jussi Toppari
- Institute of Photonic Technology, Albert-Einstein-Strasse 9, Jena 07745, Germany
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29
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Katagiri S, Sakamoto R, Maeda H, Nishimori Y, Kurita T, Nishihara H. Terminal Redox-Site Effect on the Long-Range Electron Conduction of Fe(tpy)2Oligomer Wires on a Gold Electrode. Chemistry 2013; 19:5088-96. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.201203913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2012] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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30
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YAMAGUCHI Y, OKADA Y, CHIBA K. Cyclic Voltammetric Studies on Electrocatalytic Intermolecular [2 + 2] Cycloaddition Reactions in Lithium Perchlorate/Nitromethane Electrolyte Solution. ELECTROCHEMISTRY 2013. [DOI: 10.5796/electrochemistry.81.331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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31
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Su X, Xiao X, Zhang C, Zhao M. Nucleic acid fluorescent probes for biological sensing. APPLIED SPECTROSCOPY 2012; 66:1249-1262. [PMID: 23146180 DOI: 10.1366/12-06803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Nucleic acid fluorescent probes are playing increasingly important roles in biological sensing in recent years. In addition to the conventional functions of single-stranded DNA/RNA to hybridize with their complementary strands, affinity nucleic acids (aptamers) with specific target binding properties have also been developed, which has greatly broadened the application of nucleic acid fluorescent probes to the detection of a large variety of analytes, including small molecules, proteins, ions, and even whole cells. Another chemical property of nucleic acids is to act as substrates for various nucleic acid enzymes. This property can be utilized not only to detect those enzymes and screen their inhibitors, but also employed to develop effective signal amplification systems, which implies extensive applications. This review mainly covers the biosensing methods based on the above three types of nucleic acid fluorescent probes. The most widely used intensity-based biosensing assays are covered first, including nucleic acid probe-based signal amplification methods. Then fluorescence lifetime, fluorescence anisotropy, and fluorescence correlation spectroscopy assays are introduced, respectively. As a rapidly developing field, fluorescence imaging approaches are also briefly summarized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Su
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Peking University, China
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32
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Muren NB, Olmon ED, Barton JK. Solution, surface, and single molecule platforms for the study of DNA-mediated charge transport. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2012; 14:13754-71. [PMID: 22850865 PMCID: PMC3478128 DOI: 10.1039/c2cp41602f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
The structural core of DNA, a continuous stack of aromatic heterocycles, the base pairs, which extends down the helical axis, gives rise to the fascinating electronic properties of this molecule that is so critical for life. Our laboratory and others have developed diverse experimental platforms to investigate the capacity of DNA to conduct charge, termed DNA-mediated charge transport (DNA CT). Here, we present an overview of DNA CT experiments in solution, on surfaces, and with single molecules that collectively provide a broad and consistent perspective on the essential characteristics of this chemistry. DNA CT can proceed over long molecular distances but is remarkably sensitive to perturbations in base pair stacking. We discuss how this foundation, built with data from diverse platforms, can be used both to inform a mechanistic description of DNA CT and to inspire the next platforms for its study: living organisms and molecular electronics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalie B. Muren
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena CA 91125, USA
| | - Eric D. Olmon
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena CA 91125, USA
| | - Jacqueline K. Barton
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena CA 91125, USA
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33
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Abstract
Recent experimental and theoretical studies of photoluminescence intermittency (PI) or “blinking” exhibited by single core/shell quantum dots and single organic luminophores are reviewed. For quantum dots, a discussion of early models describing the origin of PI in these materials and recent challenges to these models are presented. For organic luminophores the role of electron transfer, proton transfer and other photophysical processes in PI are discussed. Finally, new experimental and data analysis methods are outlined that promise to be instrumental in future discoveries regarding the origin(s) of PI exhibited by single emitters.
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34
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Szalay PG, Watson T, Perera A, Lotrich V, Fogarasi G, Bartlett RJ. Benchmark Studies on the Building Blocks of DNA. 2. Effect of Biological Environment on the Electronic Excitation Spectrum of Nucleobases. J Phys Chem A 2012; 116:8851-60. [DOI: 10.1021/jp305130q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Péter G. Szalay
- Institute
of Chemistry, Eötvös University, H-1518 Budapest, P.O.
Box 32, Hungary
| | - Thomas Watson
- Quantum
Theory Project, University of Florida,
Gainesville, Florida, United
States
| | - Ajith Perera
- Quantum
Theory Project, University of Florida,
Gainesville, Florida, United
States
| | - Victor Lotrich
- Quantum
Theory Project, University of Florida,
Gainesville, Florida, United
States
| | - Géza Fogarasi
- Institute
of Chemistry, Eötvös University, H-1518 Budapest, P.O.
Box 32, Hungary
| | - Rodney J. Bartlett
- Quantum
Theory Project, University of Florida,
Gainesville, Florida, United
States
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35
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Kawai K, Hayashi M, Majima T. HOMO energy gap dependence of hole-transfer kinetics in DNA. J Am Chem Soc 2012; 134:4806-11. [PMID: 22335550 DOI: 10.1021/ja2109213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
DNA consists of two type of base-pairs, G-C and A-T, in which the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) localizes on the purine bases G and A. While the hole transfer through consecutive Gs or As occurs faster than 10(9) s(-1), a significant drop in the hole transfer rate was observed for G-C and A-T mixed random sequences. In this study, by using various natural and artificial nucleobases having different HOMO levels, the effect of the HOMO-energy gap between bases (Δ(HOMO)) on the hole-transfer kinetics in DNA was investigated. The results demonstrated that the hole transfer rate can be increased by decreasing the Δ(HOMO) and can be finely tuned over 3 orders of magnitude by varying the Δ(HOMO).
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Affiliation(s)
- Kiyohiko Kawai
- The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research (SANKEN), Osaka University, Mihogaoka 8-1, Ibaraki, Osaka 567-0047, Japan
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