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Gribble GW. Naturally Occurring Organohalogen Compounds-A Comprehensive Review. PROGRESS IN THE CHEMISTRY OF ORGANIC NATURAL PRODUCTS 2023; 121:1-546. [PMID: 37488466 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-26629-4_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/26/2023]
Abstract
The present volume is the third in a trilogy that documents naturally occurring organohalogen compounds, bringing the total number-from fewer than 25 in 1968-to approximately 8000 compounds to date. Nearly all of these natural products contain chlorine or bromine, with a few containing iodine and, fewer still, fluorine. Produced by ubiquitous marine (algae, sponges, corals, bryozoa, nudibranchs, fungi, bacteria) and terrestrial organisms (plants, fungi, bacteria, insects, higher animals) and universal abiotic processes (volcanos, forest fires, geothermal events), organohalogens pervade the global ecosystem. Newly identified extraterrestrial sources are also documented. In addition to chemical structures, biological activity, biohalogenation, biodegradation, natural function, and future outlook are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gordon W Gribble
- Department of Chemistry, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, 03755, USA.
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2
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Sono M, Yamashita Y, Hirai M, Nishio Y, Takaoka S, Tori M. One-Electron Oxidation of Geranyl Acetone Derivatives Using Ceric(IV) Ammonium Nitrate and Manganese(III) Acetate: Carbon–Carbon Bond Formation. Nat Prod Commun 2022. [DOI: 10.1177/1934578x221109424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Oxidation of geranyl acetone derivatives with ceric ammonium nitrate (CAN) and Mn(OAc)3 afforded tricyclic and bicyclic compounds as well as hydroxy and nitro compounds as a result of one-electron oxidation followed by carbon–carbon bond formation. This is the first example of radical cyclization (formed by one-electron oxidation) of geranyl acetone derivative 1 and its isomer 4 to give tri- and bicyclic products with carbon–carbon bond formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masakazu Sono
- Tokushima Bunri University Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima, Japan
| | - Yui Yamashita
- Tokushima Bunri University Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima, Japan
| | - Mayu Hirai
- Tokushima Bunri University Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima, Japan
| | - Yayoi Nishio
- Tokushima Bunri University Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima, Japan
| | - Shigeru Takaoka
- Tokushima Bunri University Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima, Japan
| | - Motoo Tori
- Tokushima Bunri University, Tokushima, Japan
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3
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Freire VF, Gubiani JR, Spencer TM, Hajdu E, Ferreira AG, Ferreira DAS, de Castro Levatti EV, Burdette JE, Camargo CH, Tempone AG, Berlinck RGS. Feature-Based Molecular Networking Discovery of Bromopyrrole Alkaloids from the Marine Sponge Agelas dispar. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2022; 85:1340-1350. [PMID: 35427139 PMCID: PMC9680911 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.2c00094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Investigation of the marine sponge Agelas dispar MeOH fractions using feature-based molecular networking, dereplication, and isolation led to the discovery of new bromopyrrole-derived metabolites. An in-house library of bromopyrrole alkaloids previously isolated from A. dispar and Dictyonella sp. was utilized, along with the investigation of an MS/MS fragmentation of these compounds. Our strategy led to the isolation and identification of the disparamides A-C (1-3), with a novel carbon skeleton. Additionally, new dispyrins B-F (4-8) and nagelamides H2 and H3 (9 and 10) and known nagelamide H (11), citrinamine B (12), ageliferin (13), bromoageliferin (14), and dibromoageliferin (15) were also isolated and identified by analysis of spectroscopic data. Analysis of MS/MS fragmentation data and molecular networking analysis indicated the presence of hymenidin (16), oroidin (17), dispacamide (18), monobromodispacamide (19), keramadine (20), longamide B (21), methyl ester of longamide B (22), hanishin (23), methyl ester of 3-debromolongamide B (24), and 3-debromohanishin (25). Antibacterial activity of ageliferin (13), bromoageliferin (14), and dibromoageliferin (15) was evaluated against susceptible and multi-drug-resistant ESKAPE pathogenic bacteria Klabsiella pneumoniae, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Acinetobacter baumannii, and Enterococcus faecalis. Dibromoageliferin (15) displayed the most potent antimicrobial activity against all tested susceptible and MDR strains. Compounds 13-15 presented no significant hemolytic activity up to 100 μM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vítor F Freire
- Instituto de Química de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo, CP 780, CEP 13560-970, São Carlos, SP, Brazil
| | - Juliana R Gubiani
- Instituto de Química de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo, CP 780, CEP 13560-970, São Carlos, SP, Brazil
| | - Tara M Spencer
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Center for Biomolecular Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, 833 South Wood Street, Chicago, Illinois 60612, United States
| | - Eduardo Hajdu
- Museu Nacional, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Quinta da Boa Vista, s/n, CEP 20940-040, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Antonio G Ferreira
- Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, Rod. Washington Luiz, km 235 - SP-310, CEP 13565-905, São Carlos, SP, Brazil
| | - Dayana A S Ferreira
- Instituto Adolfo Lutz, Secretaria de Saúde do Estado de São Paulo, Avenida Dr. Arnaldo, 351 8 Andar, sala 9, CEP 01246-000 Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Erica V de Castro Levatti
- Instituto Adolfo Lutz, Secretaria de Saúde do Estado de São Paulo, Avenida Dr. Arnaldo, 351 8 Andar, sala 9, CEP 01246-000 Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Joanna E Burdette
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Center for Biomolecular Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, 833 South Wood Street, Chicago, Illinois 60612, United States
| | - Carlos Henrique Camargo
- Instituto Adolfo Lutz, Secretaria de Saúde do Estado de São Paulo, Avenida Dr. Arnaldo, 351 8 Andar, sala 9, CEP 01246-000 Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Andre G Tempone
- Instituto Adolfo Lutz, Secretaria de Saúde do Estado de São Paulo, Avenida Dr. Arnaldo, 351 8 Andar, sala 9, CEP 01246-000 Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Roberto G S Berlinck
- Instituto de Química de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo, CP 780, CEP 13560-970, São Carlos, SP, Brazil
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4
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Abstract
A strategy for the stereoselective synthesis of desacyl furanmonogones A and B has been achieved. The key steps in this synthesis are (1) an Fe(ClO4)3-mediated oxidative radical cyclization for construction of a cis-fused [5-6]-bicyclic core with a bridged lactone substitute, (2) a phosphorane-mediated rearrangement to convert the cis-fused [5-6]-bicyclic core to the corresponding trans-fused [5-6]-bicyclic core, and (3) a Au-catalyzed cascade reaction for formation of the 4,5-seco-3(2H)-furanone motif.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dian Li
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Oncogenomics, Key Laboratory of Chemical Genomics, Peking University Shenzhen Graduate School, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Jinfeng Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Oncogenomics, Key Laboratory of Chemical Genomics, Peking University Shenzhen Graduate School, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Bingyan Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Oncogenomics, Key Laboratory of Chemical Genomics, Peking University Shenzhen Graduate School, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Jianxian Gong
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Oncogenomics, Key Laboratory of Chemical Genomics, Peking University Shenzhen Graduate School, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Zhen Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Oncogenomics, Key Laboratory of Chemical Genomics, Peking University Shenzhen Graduate School, Shenzhen 518055, China
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Melander RJ, Basak AK, Melander C. Natural products as inspiration for the development of bacterial antibiofilm agents. Nat Prod Rep 2020; 37:1454-1477. [PMID: 32608431 PMCID: PMC7677205 DOI: 10.1039/d0np00022a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Natural products have historically been a rich source of diverse chemical matter with numerous biological activities, and have played an important role in drug discovery in many areas including infectious disease. Synthetic and medicinal chemistry have been, and continue to be, important tools to realize the potential of natural products as therapeutics and as chemical probes. The formation of biofilms by bacteria in an infection setting is a significant factor in the recalcitrance of many bacterial infections, conferring increased tolerance to many antibiotics and to the host immune response, and as yet there are no approved therapeutics for combatting biofilm-based bacterial infections. Small molecules that interfere with the ability of bacteria to form and maintain biofilms can overcome antibiotic tolerance conferred by the biofilm phenotype, and have the potential to form combination therapies with conventional antibiotics. Many natural products with anti-biofilm activity have been identified from plants, microbes, and marine life, including: elligic acid glycosides, hamamelitannin, carolacton, skyllamycins, promysalin, phenazines, bromoageliferin, flustramine C, meridianin D, and brominated furanones. Total synthesis and medicinal chemistry programs have facilitated structure confirmation, identification of critical structural motifs, better understanding of mechanistic pathways, and the development of more potent, more accessible, or more pharmacologically favorable derivatives of anti-biofilm natural products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberta J Melander
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA.
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Keel KL, Tepe J. The preparation of (4H)-imidazol-4-ones and their application in the total synthesis of natural products. Org Chem Front 2020; 7:3284-3311. [PMID: 33796321 DOI: 10.1039/d0qo00764a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
(4H)-Imidazol-4-ones are an important scaffold for a variety of applications, including natural products, medicine, agriculture, and other applications. Over the years, there have been a number of preparations published for the synthesis of imidazol-4-ones. This review discusses the progress made on the synthesis of imidazol-4-ones, and their application towards the total synthesis of a range of imidazol-4-one containing natural products. Emphasis is made on areas of the field that still need progress.
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Li T, Tang X, Luo X, Wang Q, Liu K, Zhang Y, de Voogd NJ, Yang J, Li P, Li G. Agelanemoechine, a Dimeric Bromopyrrole Alkaloid with a Pro-Angiogenic Effect from the South China Sea Sponge Agelas nemoechinata. Org Lett 2019; 21:9483-9486. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.9b03683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tao Li
- Key Laboratory of Marine Drugs, Chinese Ministry of Education, School of Medicine and Pharmacy, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266003, People’s Republic of China
- Laboratory of Marine Drugs and Biological Products, National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266235, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xuli Tang
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xiangchao Luo
- Key Laboratory of Marine Drugs, Chinese Ministry of Education, School of Medicine and Pharmacy, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266003, People’s Republic of China
- Laboratory of Marine Drugs and Biological Products, National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266235, People’s Republic of China
| | - Qi Wang
- Key Laboratory of Marine Drugs, Chinese Ministry of Education, School of Medicine and Pharmacy, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266003, People’s Republic of China
- Institutes of Chronic Disease, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266003, People’s Republic of China
| | - Kechun Liu
- Biology Institute, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan 28789, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yun Zhang
- Biology Institute, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan 28789, People’s Republic of China
| | - Nicole J. de Voogd
- National Museum of Natural History, P.O. Box 9517, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Junjie Yang
- Key Laboratory of Marine Drugs, Chinese Ministry of Education, School of Medicine and Pharmacy, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266003, People’s Republic of China
- Laboratory of Marine Drugs and Biological Products, National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266235, People’s Republic of China
| | - Pinglin Li
- Key Laboratory of Marine Drugs, Chinese Ministry of Education, School of Medicine and Pharmacy, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266003, People’s Republic of China
- Laboratory of Marine Drugs and Biological Products, National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266235, People’s Republic of China
| | - Guoqiang Li
- Key Laboratory of Marine Drugs, Chinese Ministry of Education, School of Medicine and Pharmacy, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266003, People’s Republic of China
- Laboratory of Marine Drugs and Biological Products, National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266235, People’s Republic of China
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8
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Theunissen C, Métayer B, Lecomte M, Henry N, Chan HC, Compain G, Gérard P, Bachmann C, Mokhtari N, Marrot J, Martin-Mingot A, Thibaudeau S, Evano G. Cationic polycyclization of ynamides: building up molecular complexity. Org Biomol Chem 2018; 15:4399-4416. [PMID: 28485455 DOI: 10.1039/c7ob00850c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Polycyclization reactions are among the most efficient synthetic tools for the synthesis of complex, polycyclic molecules in a single operation from simple starting materials. We report in this manuscript a full account on the discovery and development of a novel cationic polycyclization from readily available ynamides. Simple activation of these building blocks under acidic conditions enables the generation of highly reactive activated keteniminium ions, which triggers an unprecedented cationic polycyclization yielding highly substituted polycyclic nitrogen heterocycles possessing up to seven fused cycles and three contiguous stereocenters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cédric Theunissen
- Laboratoire de Chimie Organique, Service de Chimie et PhysicoChimie Organiques, Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Avenue F. D. Roosevelt 50, CP160/06, 1050 Brussels, Belgium.
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9
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Rapid access to the core skeleton of the [3 + 2]-type dimeric pyrrole-imidazole alkaloids by triplet ketone-mediated C-H functionalization. Tetrahedron 2018; 74:769-772. [PMID: 29622843 DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2017.12.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The ability of triplet ketones to abstract a hydrogen atom from hydrocarbons is reminiscent of that of the high-spin metal-oxo complexes in C-H oxidation enzymes. In practice, the reactivity of triplet ketones is easier to control and applicable to promoting a wider range of reactions. We demonstrate herein the synthetic utility of triplet ketone-mediated C-addition of methanol to cyclopentenone derivatives with an expedient synthesis of the core skeleton of the [3+2]-type dimeric pyrrole-imidazole alkaloids. Remarkably, this photochemical C-H functionalization reaction is highly regioselective and can tolerate a good range of functional groups.
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10
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Hirano K, Miura M. A lesson for site-selective C-H functionalization on 2-pyridones: radical, organometallic, directing group and steric controls. Chem Sci 2018; 9:22-32. [PMID: 29629070 PMCID: PMC5875088 DOI: 10.1039/c7sc04509c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2017] [Accepted: 11/26/2017] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
A 2-pyridone ring is a frequently occurring subunit in natural products, biologically active compounds, and pharmaceutical targets. Thus, the selective synthesis of substituted 2-pyridone derivatives through decoration and/or formation of pyridone rings has been one of the important longstanding subjects in organic synthetic chemistry. This minireview focuses on recent advances in site-selective C-H functionalization on 2-pyridone. The reported procedures are categorized according to the site selectivity that is achieved, and the substrate scope, limitations, mechanism, and controlling factors are briefly summarized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koji Hirano
- Department of Applied Chemistry , Graduate School of Engineering , Osaka University , Suita , Osaka 565-0871 , Japan . ;
| | - Masahiro Miura
- Department of Applied Chemistry , Graduate School of Engineering , Osaka University , Suita , Osaka 565-0871 , Japan . ;
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11
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Ma Z, Chen C. Natural products as inspiration for the development of new synthetic methods. J CHIN CHEM SOC-TAIP 2018; 65:43-59. [PMID: 29430058 PMCID: PMC5800783 DOI: 10.1002/jccs.201700134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Natural products have played an important role in shaping modern synthetic organic chemistry. In particular, their complex molecular skeletons have stimulated the development of many new synthetic methods. We highlight in this article some recent examples of synthetic design inspired by the biosynthesis of natural products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiqiang Ma
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, Texas 75390-9038, USA
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, P. R. China
| | - Chuo Chen
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, Texas 75390-9038, USA
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12
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Plesniak MP, Huang HM, Procter DJ. Radical cascade reactions triggered by single electron transfer. Nat Rev Chem 2017. [DOI: 10.1038/s41570-017-0077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 169] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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Abstract
Covering: July 2012 to June 2015. Previous review: Nat. Prod. Rep., 2013, 30, 869-915The structurally diverse imidazole-, oxazole-, and thiazole-containing secondary metabolites are widely distributed in terrestrial and marine environments, and exhibit extensive pharmacological activities. In this review the latest progress involving the isolation, biological activities, and chemical and biogenetic synthesis studies on these natural products has been summarized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhong Jin
- State Key Laboratory and Institute of Elemento-Organic Chemistry, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, China. and Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), Tianjin 300071, China
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14
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Oxidative Radical Cyclization–Cyclization Reaction Leading to 1H-Benzo[f]isoindole Derivatives. MOLBANK 2017. [DOI: 10.3390/m929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
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15
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Ma Z, You L, Chen C. Stereocontrolled Formation of a [4.4]Heterospiro Ring System with Unexpected Inversion of Configuration at the Spirocenter. J Org Chem 2017; 82:731-736. [PMID: 27933858 PMCID: PMC5527678 DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.6b02266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Stereoselective construction of the 1,3-diazaspiro[4.4]nonane core skeleton of massadine and related dimeric pyrrole-imidazole alkaloids is a synthetic challenge. We describe herein the synthesis of all C13/14 diastereomers of this spiro molecule through controlled oxidation and epimerization of the C13 spirocenter under mild acidic conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lin You
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, Texas 75390-9038, United States
| | - Chuo Chen
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, Texas 75390-9038, United States
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Lindel T. Chemistry and Biology of the Pyrrole–Imidazole Alkaloids. THE ALKALOIDS: CHEMISTRY AND BIOLOGY 2017; 77:117-219. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.alkal.2016.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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17
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Yoshida M, Kobayashi A, Nakayama A, Namba K. Synthesis of functionalized 2,3-dihydropyrroles by oxidative radical cyclization of N-Sulfonyl β-enamino esters with alkenes. Tetrahedron 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2016.03.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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18
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Ma Z, Wang X, Ma Y, Chen C. Asymmetric Synthesis of Axinellamines A and B. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2016; 55:4763-6. [PMID: 27037993 PMCID: PMC4836294 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201600007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2016] [Revised: 02/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Axinellamines A and B are broad-spectrum antibacterial pyrrole-imidazole alkaloids that have a complex polycyclic skeleton. A new asymmetric synthesis of these marine sponge metabolites is described herein, featuring an oxidative rearrangement and an anchimeric chlorination reaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiqiang Ma
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, TX, 75390, USA
| | - Xiao Wang
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, TX, 75390, USA
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
| | - Yuyong Ma
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, TX, 75390, USA
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
| | - Chuo Chen
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, TX, 75390, USA.
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19
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiqiang Ma
- Department of Biochemistry The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard Dallas TX 75390 USA
| | - Xiao Wang
- Department of Biochemistry The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard Dallas TX 75390 USA
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry The University of California, San Diego 9500 Gilman Drive La Jolla CA 92093 USA
| | - Yuyong Ma
- Department of Biochemistry The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard Dallas TX 75390 USA
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry The University of California, San Diego 9500 Gilman Drive La Jolla CA 92093 USA
| | - Chuo Chen
- Department of Biochemistry The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard Dallas TX 75390 USA
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20
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Qiu Y, Gao S. Trends in applying C-H oxidation to the total synthesis of natural products. Nat Prod Rep 2016; 33:562-81. [PMID: 26847167 DOI: 10.1039/c5np00122f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Covering: 2006 to 2015C-H functionalization remains one of the frontier challenges in organic chemistry and drives quite an active area of research. It has recently been applied in various novel strategies for the synthesis of natural products. It can dramatically increase synthetic efficiency when incorporated into retrosynthetic analyses of complex natural products, making it an essential part of current trends in organic synthesis. In this Review, we focus on selected case studies of recent applications of C-H oxidation methodologies in which the C-H bond has been exploited effectively to construct C-O and C-N bonds in natural product syntheses. Examples of syntheses representing different types of C-H oxidation are discussed to illustrate the potential of this approach and inspire future applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanyou Qiu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Green Chemistry and Chemical Processes, School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, East China Normal University, 3663N Zhongshan Road, Shanghai 200062, P. R. China.
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21
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Ardkhean R, Caputo DFJ, Morrow SM, Shi H, Xiong Y, Anderson EA. Cascade polycyclizations in natural product synthesis. Chem Soc Rev 2016; 45:1557-69. [DOI: 10.1039/c5cs00105f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 185] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Cascade (domino) reactions have an unparalleled ability to generate molecular complexity from relatively simple starting materials; these transformations are particularly appealing when multiple rings are forged during this process.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - H. Shi
- Chemistry Research Laboratory
- Oxford
- UK
| | - Y. Xiong
- Chemistry Research Laboratory
- Oxford
- UK
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22
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Beniddir MA, Evanno L, Joseph D, Skiredj A, Poupon E. Emergence of diversity and stereochemical outcomes in the biosynthetic pathways of cyclobutane-centered marine alkaloid dimers. Nat Prod Rep 2016; 33:820-42. [DOI: 10.1039/c5np00159e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
A deep-sea dive into the ecology and chemistry of surprising cyclobutanes from marine invertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Laurent Evanno
- BioCIS
- Univ. Paris-Sud
- CNRS
- Université Paris-Saclay
- Châtenay-Malabry
| | - Delphine Joseph
- BioCIS
- Univ. Paris-Sud
- CNRS
- Université Paris-Saclay
- Châtenay-Malabry
| | - Adam Skiredj
- BioCIS
- Univ. Paris-Sud
- CNRS
- Université Paris-Saclay
- Châtenay-Malabry
| | - Erwan Poupon
- BioCIS
- Univ. Paris-Sud
- CNRS
- Université Paris-Saclay
- Châtenay-Malabry
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Wang X, Gao Y, Ma Z, Rodriguez RA, Yu ZX, Chen C. Syntheses of Sceptrins and Nakamuric Acid and Insights into the Biosyntheses of Pyrrole-Imidazole Dimers. Org Chem Front 2015; 2:978-984. [PMID: 26328059 PMCID: PMC4551504 DOI: 10.1039/c5qo00165j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Sceptrins and nakamuric acid are structurally unique antibiotics isolated from marine sponges. Recent studies suggest that the biosynthesis of these dimeric pyrrole-imidazole alkaloids involves a single-electron transfer (SET)-promoted [2+2] cycloaddition to form their cyclobutane core skeletons. We describe herein the biomimetic syntheses of racemic sceptrin and nakamuric acid. We also report the asymmetric syntheses of sceptrin, bromosceptrin, and dibromosceptrin in their natural enantiomeric form. We further provide mechanistic insights into the pathway selectivity of the SET-promoted [2+2] and [4+2] cycloadditions that lead to the divergent formation of the sceptrin and ageliferin core skeletons. Both the [2+2] and [4+2] cycloadditions are stepwise reactions, with the [2+2] pathway kinetically and thermodynamically favored over the [4+2] pathway. For the [2+2] cycloaddition, the dimerization of pyrrole-imidazole monomers is rate-limiting, whereas for the [4+2] cycloaddition, the cyclization is the slowest step.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaolei Wang
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
| | - Yang Gao
- College of Chemistry, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China ; Key Laboratory of Pesticide & Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Central China Normal University, Hubei, Wuhan 430079, China
| | - Zhiqiang Ma
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
| | - Rodrigo A Rodriguez
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Zhi-Xiang Yu
- College of Chemistry, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Chuo Chen
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
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24
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Crossley SWM, Shenvi RA. A Longitudinal Study of Alkaloid Synthesis Reveals Functional Group Interconversions as Bad Actors. Chem Rev 2015; 115:9465-531. [PMID: 26158529 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.5b00154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Steven W M Crossley
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute , La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Ryan A Shenvi
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute , La Jolla, California 92037, United States
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25
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Abstract
The biosynthesis of dimeric pyrrole-imidazole alkaloids is likely mediated by enzyme-catalyzed reversible single-electron transfer (SET) cycloaddition. We now show that Ir(ppy)3 can promote SET-mediated formal [2+2] and [4+2] cycloaddition reactions of pyrrole-imidazole alkaloids-related substrates under photolytic conditions. This biomimetic approach is useful for the construction of the core skeleton of nakamuric acid and sceptrin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaolei Wang
- Department of Biochemistry, UT Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, TX 75390-9038, USA
| | - Chuo Chen
- Department of Biochemistry, UT Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, TX 75390-9038, USA
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26
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Abstract
Naturally occurring guanidine derivatives frequently display medicinally useful properties. Among them, the higher order pyrrole-imidazole alkaloids, the dragmacidins, the crambescidins/batzelladines, and the saxitoxins/tetradotoxins have stimulated the development of many new synthetic methods over the past decades. We provide here an overview of the syntheses of these cyclic guanidine-containing natural products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuyong Ma
- Division of Chemistry, Department of Biochemistry, U T Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, TX 75390-9038, USA
| | - Saptarshi De
- Division of Chemistry, Department of Biochemistry, U T Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, TX 75390-9038, USA
| | - Chuo Chen
- Division of Chemistry, Department of Biochemistry, U T Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, TX 75390-9038, USA
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27
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Ma Z, Wang X, Wang X, Rodriguez RA, Moore CE, Gao S, Tan X, Ma Y, Rheingold AL, Baran PS, Chen C. Asymmetric syntheses of sceptrin and massadine and evidence for biosynthetic enantiodivergence. Science 2014; 346:219-24. [PMID: 25301624 DOI: 10.1126/science.1255677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Cycloaddition is an essential tool in chemical synthesis. Instead of using light or heat as a driving force, marine sponges promote cycloaddition with a more versatile but poorly understood mechanism in producing pyrrole-imidazole alkaloids sceptrin, massadine, and ageliferin. Through de novo synthesis of sceptrin and massadine, we show that sponges may use single-electron oxidation as a central mechanism to promote three different types of cycloaddition. Additionally, we provide surprising evidence that, in contrast to previous reports, sceptrin, massadine, and ageliferin have mismatched chirality. Therefore, massadine cannot be an oxidative rearrangement product of sceptrin or ageliferin, as is commonly believed. Taken together, our results demonstrate unconventional chemical approaches to achieving cycloaddition reactions in synthesis and uncover enantiodivergence as a new biosynthetic paradigm for natural products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiqiang Ma
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
| | - Xiaolei Wang
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
| | - Xiao Wang
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
| | - Rodrigo A Rodriguez
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Curtis E Moore
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Shuanhu Gao
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
| | - Xianghui Tan
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
| | - Yuyong Ma
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
| | - Arnold L Rheingold
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Phil S Baran
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Chuo Chen
- Department of Biochemistry, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA.
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28
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Zhu Y, Shi Y. Cu(I)-catalyzed sequential diamination and dehydrogenation of terminal olefins: a facile approach to imidazolinones. Chemistry 2014; 20:13901-4. [PMID: 25213994 DOI: 10.1002/chem.201404381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2014] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Diamination of olefins presents a powerful strategy to access vicinal diamines. During the last decade, metal-catalyzed diamination of olefins has received considerable attention. This study describes an efficient sequential diamination and dehydrogenation process of terminal olefins with CuBr as catalyst and di-tert-butyldiaziridinone as nitrogen source, providing a facile and viable approach to a variety of imidazolin-2-ones, which are important structural motifs present in various biologically active molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingguang Zhu
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523 (USA)
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29
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Wang X, Ma Z, Wang X, De S, Ma Y, Chen C. Dimeric pyrrole-imidazole alkaloids: synthetic approaches and biosynthetic hypotheses. Chem Commun (Camb) 2014; 50:8628-39. [PMID: 24828265 PMCID: PMC4096073 DOI: 10.1039/c4cc02290d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The pyrrole-imidazole alkaloids are a group of structurally unique and biologically interesting marine sponge metabolites. Among them, the cyclic dimers have caught synthetic chemists' attention particularly. Numerous synthetic strategies have been developed and various biosynthetic hypotheses have been proposed for these fascinating natural products. We discuss herein the synthetic approaches and the biosynthetic insights obtained from these studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao Wang
- Division of Chemistry, Department of Biochemistry, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, Texas 75390-9038, USA.
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30
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Logan AWJ, Sprague SJ, Foster RW, Marx LB, Garzya V, Hallside MS, Thompson AL, Burton JW. Diastereoselective Synthesis of Fused Lactone-Pyrrolidinones; Application to a Formal Synthesis of (−)-Salinosporamide A. Org Lett 2014; 16:4078-81. [DOI: 10.1021/ol501662t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Angus W. J. Logan
- Chemistry
Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford, Mansfield Road, Oxford OX1 3TA, United Kingdom
| | - Simon J. Sprague
- Chemistry
Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford, Mansfield Road, Oxford OX1 3TA, United Kingdom
| | - Robert W. Foster
- Chemistry
Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford, Mansfield Road, Oxford OX1 3TA, United Kingdom
| | - Léo B. Marx
- Chemistry
Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford, Mansfield Road, Oxford OX1 3TA, United Kingdom
| | | | - Michal S. Hallside
- Chemistry
Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford, Mansfield Road, Oxford OX1 3TA, United Kingdom
| | - Amber L. Thompson
- Chemistry
Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford, Mansfield Road, Oxford OX1 3TA, United Kingdom
| | - Jonathan W. Burton
- Chemistry
Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford, Mansfield Road, Oxford OX1 3TA, United Kingdom
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31
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Abstract
This review covers the literature published in 2012 for marine natural products, with 1035 citations (673 for the period January to December 2012) referring to compounds isolated from marine microorganisms and phytoplankton, green, brown and red algae, sponges, cnidarians, bryozoans, molluscs, tunicates, echinoderms, mangroves and other intertidal plants and microorganisms. The emphasis is on new compounds (1241 for 2012), together with the relevant biological activities, source organisms and country of origin. Biosynthetic studies, first syntheses, and syntheses that lead to the revision of structures or stereochemistries, have been included.
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Affiliation(s)
- John W Blunt
- Department of Chemistry, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand.
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32
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Nakatani A, Hirano K, Satoh T, Miura M. Manganese-Mediated C3-Selective Direct Alkylation and Arylation of 2-Pyridones with Diethyl Malonates and Arylboronic Acids. J Org Chem 2014; 79:1377-85. [DOI: 10.1021/jo4027885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Akihiro Nakatani
- Department
of Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Engineering, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Koji Hirano
- Department
of Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Engineering, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Tetsuya Satoh
- Department
of Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Engineering, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Masahiro Miura
- Department
of Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Engineering, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
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33
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Abstract
Bleach oxidizes trimethylsilyl cyanide to generate an electrophilic cyanating reagent that readily reacts with an amine nucleophile. This oxidative N-cyanation reaction allows for the preparation of disubstituted cyanamides from amines without using highly toxic cyanogen halides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen Zhu
- University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Department of Biochemistry, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, Texas 75390, United States
| | - Ji-Bao Xia
- University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Department of Biochemistry, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, Texas 75390, United States
| | - Chuo Chen
- University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Department of Biochemistry, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, Texas 75390, United States
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34
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Peng P, Liu H, Gong J, Nicholls JM, Li X. A facile synthesis of sialylated oligolactosamine glycans from lactose via the Lafont intermediate. Chem Sci 2014. [DOI: 10.1039/c4sc01013b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
We have developed a facile synthesis of sialylated oligolactosamine glycans, including Neu5Ac-α-2,3LacNAc-β-1,3LacNAc (3′SLN-LN) and Neu5Ac-α-2,3LacNAc-β-1,3LacNAc-β-1,3LacNAc (3′SLN-LN-LN), also providing a useful method for the preparation of 2-amino sugar building blocks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Peng
- Department of Chemistry
- The University of Hong Kong
- Hong Kong
| | - Han Liu
- Department of Chemistry
- The University of Hong Kong
- Hong Kong
| | - Jianzhi Gong
- Department of Chemistry
- The University of Hong Kong
- Hong Kong
| | - John M. Nicholls
- Department of Pathology
- Li Ka-Shing Faculty of Medicine
- The University of Hong Kong
- Hong Kong
| | - Xuechen Li
- Department of Chemistry
- The University of Hong Kong
- Hong Kong
- The State Key Laboratory of Synthetic Chemistry
- The University of Hong Kong
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35
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Xia JB, Zhu C, Chen C. Visible light-promoted metal-free C-H activation: diarylketone-catalyzed selective benzylic mono- and difluorination. J Am Chem Soc 2013; 135:17494-500. [PMID: 24180320 PMCID: PMC3874084 DOI: 10.1021/ja410815u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 416] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
We report herein an operationally simple method for the direct conversion of benzylic C-H groups to C-F. We show that visible light can activate diarylketones to abstract a benzylic hydrogen atom selectively. Adding a fluorine radical donor yields the benzylic fluoride and regenerates the catalyst. The selective formation of mono- and difluorination products can be achieved by catalyst control. 9-Fluorenone catalyzes benzylic C-H monofluorination, while xanthone catalyzes benzylic C-H difluorination. The scope and efficiency of this new C-H fluorination method are significantly better than those of the existing methods. This is also the first report of selective C-H gem-difluorination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji-Bao Xia
- Division of Chemistry, Department of Biochemistry, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, Texas 75390-9038, United States
| | - Chen Zhu
- Division of Chemistry, Department of Biochemistry, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, Texas 75390-9038, United States
| | - Chuo Chen
- Division of Chemistry, Department of Biochemistry, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, Texas 75390-9038, United States
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36
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Yoshida M, Takai H, Yodokawa S, Shishido K. Regio- and diastereoselective synthesis of functionalized hydroxyhexahydrocyclopenta[b]furancarboxylates by oxidative radical cyclization of cyclic β-keto esters with alkenes. Tetrahedron 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2013.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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37
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Mondal M, Bora U. Recent advances in manganese(iii) acetate mediated organic synthesis. RSC Adv 2013. [DOI: 10.1039/c3ra42480d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
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38
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Ding H, Roberts AG, Harran PG. Total Synthesis of Ageliferin via Acyl N-amidinyliminium Ion Rearrangement. Chem Sci 2013; 4:303-306. [PMID: 23687567 PMCID: PMC3653441 DOI: 10.1039/c2sc21651e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Ageliferin is a marine natural product having antiviral and antimicrobial activities. These functions remain to be characterized at a molecular level. Ageliferin is also thought a biosynthetic intermediary linking oroidin type alkaloids to more complex polycyclic derivatives. This scenario has the amino tetrahydrobenzimidazole motif in ageliferin serving as a reduced progenitor of oxidized, ring-contracted spirocycles. Here we describe the reverse. Namely, a concise synthesis of ageliferin which features ring expansion of a spirocyclic precursor - itself derived from reduction. The pathway also provides access to unique isosteres of the axinellamine ring system, allowing new synthetic additions to the growing family of pyrrole / imidazole alkaloids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Ding
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California Los Angeles, 607 Charles E. Young Drive, East, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1569, USA
| | - Andrew G. Roberts
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California Los Angeles, 607 Charles E. Young Drive, East, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1569, USA
| | - Patrick G. Harran
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California Los Angeles, 607 Charles E. Young Drive, East, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1569, USA
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