A 2.8 Å Fe-Fe separation in the Fe2(III/IV) intermediate, X, from Escherichia coli ribonucleotide reductase

106-fold faster C-H bond hydroxylation by a CoIII,IV2(µ-O)2 complex [via a CoIII2(µ-O)(µ-OH) intermediate] versus its FeIIIFeIV analog

The hydroxylation of C-H bonds can be carried out by the high-valent CoIII,IV2(µ-O)2 complex 2a supported by the tetradentate tris(2-pyridylmethyl)amine ligand via a CoIII2(µ-O)(µ-OH) intermediate (3a). Complex 3a can be independently generated either by H-atom transfer (HAT) in the reaction of 2a with phenols as the H-atom donor or protonation of its conjugate base, the CoIII2(µ-O)2 complex 1a. Resonance Raman spectra of these three complexes reveal oxygen-isotope-sensitive vibrations at 560 to 590 cm-1 associated with the symmetric Co-O-Co stretching mode of the Co2O2 diamond core. Together with a Co•••Co distance of 2.78(2) Å previously identified for 1a and 2a by Extended X-ray Absorption Fine Structure (EXAFS) analysis, these results provide solid evidence for their "diamond core" structural assignments. The independent generation of 3a allows us to investigate HAT reactions of 2a with phenols in detail, measure the redox potential and pKa of the system, and calculate the O-H bond strength (DO-H) of 3a to shed light on the C-H bond activation reactivity of 2a. Complex 3a is found to be able to transfer its hydroxyl ligand onto the trityl radical to form the hydroxylated product, representing a direct experimental observation of such a reaction by a dinuclear cobalt complex. Surprisingly, reactivity comparisons reveal 2a to be 106-fold more reactive in oxidizing hydrocarbon C-H bonds than corresponding FeIII,IV2(µ-O)2 and MnIII,IV2(µ-O)2 analogs, an unexpected outcome that raises the prospects for using CoIII,IV2(µ-O)2 species to oxidize alkane C-H bonds.

Theoretical Insights into the Generation Mechanism of the Tyr122 Radical Catalyzed by Intermediate X in Class Ia Ribonucleotide Reductase

Ribonucleotide reductase (RNR) catalyzes the reduction of ribonucleotides to deoxyribonucleotides in all organisms. There is an ∼35 Å long-range electron-hole transfer pathway during the catalytic process of class Ia RNR, which can be described as Tyr122β ↔ [Trp48β]? ↔ Tyr356β ↔ Tyr731α ↔ Tyr730α ↔ Cys439α. The formation of the Y122• radical initiates this long-range radical transfer process. However, the generation mechanism of Y122• is not yet clear due to confusion over the intermediate X structures. Based on the two reported X structures, we examined the possible mechanisms of Y122• generation by density functional theory (DFT) calculations. Our examinations revealed that the generation of the Y122• radical from the two different core structures of X was via a similar two-step reaction, with the first step of proton transfer for the formation of the proton receptor of Y122 and the second step of a proton-coupled long-range electron transfer reaction with the proton transfer from the Y122 hydroxyl group to the terminal hydroxide ligand of Fe1III and simultaneously electron transfer from the side chain of Y122 to Fe2IV. These findings provide an insight into the formation mechanism of Y122• catalyzed by the double-iron center of the β subunit of class Ia RNR.

Spectroscopic Properties of a Biologically Relevant [Fe2 (μ-O)2 ] Diamond Core Motif with a Short Iron-Iron Distance

Diiron cofactors in enzymes perform diverse challenging transformations. The structures of high valent intermediates (Q in methane monooxygenase and X in ribonucleotide reductase) are debated since Fe-Fe distances of 2.5-3.4 Å were attributed to "open" or "closed" cores with bridging or terminal oxido groups. We report the crystallographic and spectroscopic characterization of a Fe^III ₂ (μ-O)₂ complex (2) with tetrahedral (4C) centres and short Fe-Fe distance (2.52 Å), persisting in organic solutions. 2 shows a large Fe K-pre-edge intensity, which is caused by the pronounced asymmetry at the T_D Fe^III centres due to the short Fe-μ-O bonds. A ≈2.5 Å Fe-Fe distance is unlikely for six-coordinate sites in Q or X, but for a Fe₂ (μ-O)₂ core containing four-coordinate (or by possible extension five-coordinate) iron centres there may be enough flexibility to accommodate a particularly short Fe-Fe separation with intense pre-edge transition. This finding may broaden the scope of models considered for the structure of high-valent diiron intermediates formed upon O₂ activation in biology.

Enzymatic X-ray absorption spectroelectrochemistry

The ability to observe the changes that occur at an enzyme active site during electrocatalysis can provide very valuable information for understanding the mechanism and ultimately aid in catalyst design. Herein, we discuss the development of X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) in combination with electrochemistry for operando studies of enzymatic systems. XAS has had a long history of enabling geometric and electronic structural insights into the catalytic active sites of enzymes, however, XAS combined with electrochemistry (XA-SEC) has been exceedingly rare in bioinorganic applications. Herein, we discuss the challenges and opportunities of applying operando XAS to enzymatic electrocatalysts. The challenges due to the low concentration of the photoabsorber and the instability of the protein in the X-ray beam are discussed. Methods for immobilizing enzymes on the electrodes, while maintaining full redox control are highlighted. A case study of combined XAS and electrochemistry applied to a [NiFe] hydrogenase is presented. By entrapping the [NiFe] hydrogenase in a redox polymer, relatively high protein concentrations can be achieved on the electrode surface, while maintaining redox control. Overall, it is demonstrated that the experiments are feasible, but require precise redox control over the majority of the absorber atoms and careful controls to discriminate between electrochemically-driven changes and beam damage. Opportunities for future applications are discussed.

Intramolecular Hydrogen-Bond Interactions Tune Reactivity in Biomimetic Bis(μ-hydroxo)dicobalt Complexes

Active site hydrogen-bond (H-bond) networks represent a key component by which metalloenzymes control the formation and deployment of high-valent transition metal-oxo intermediates. We report a series of dinuclear cobalt complexes that serve as structural models for the nonheme diiron enzyme family and feature a Co₂(μ-OH)₂ diamond core stabilized by intramolecular H-bond interactions. We define the conditions required for the kinetically controlled synthesis of these complexes: [Co₂(μ-OH)₂(μ-OAc)(κ¹-OAc)₂(py^R)₄][PF₆] (1^R), where OAc = acetate and py^R = pyridine with para-substituent R, and we describe a homologous series of 1^R in which the para-R substituent on pyridine is modulated. The solid state X-ray diffraction (XRD) structures of 1^R are similar across the series, but in solution, their ¹H NMR spectra reveal a linear free energy relationship (LFER) where, as R becomes increasingly electron-withdrawing, the intramolecular H-bond interaction between bridging μ-OH and κ¹-acetate ligands results in increasingly "oxo-like" μ-OH bridges. Deprotonation of the bridging μ-OH results in the quantitative conversion to corresponding cubane complexes: [Co₄(μ-O)₄(μ₃-OAc)₄(py^R)₄] (2^R), which represent the thermodynamic sink of self-assembly. These reactions are unusually slow for rate-limiting deprotonation events, but rapid-mixing experiments reveal a 6000-fold rate acceleration on going from R = OMe to R = CN. These results suggest that we can tune reactivity by modulating the μ-OH pK_a in the presence of intramolecular H-bond interactions to maintain stability as the octahedral d⁶ centers become increasingly acidic. Nature may similarly employ dynamic carboxylate-mediated H-bond interactions to control the reactivity of acidic transition metal-oxo intermediates.

Nuclear Resonance Vibrational Spectroscopic Definition of the Fe(IV)2 Intermediate Q in Methane Monooxygenase and Its Reactivity

Methanotrophic bacteria utilize the nonheme diiron enzyme soluble methane monooxygenase (sMMO) to convert methane to methanol in the first step of their metabolic cycle under copper-limiting conditions. The structure of the sMMO Fe(IV)₂ intermediate Q responsible for activating the inert C-H bond of methane (BDE = 104 kcal/mol) remains controversial, with recent studies suggesting both "open" and "closed" core geometries for its active site. In this study, we employ nuclear resonance vibrational spectroscopy (NRVS) to probe the geometric and electronic structure of intermediate Q at cryogenic temperatures. These data demonstrate that Q decays rapidly during the NRVS experiment. Combining data from several years of measurements, we derive the NRVS vibrational features of intermediate Q as well as its cryoreduced decay product. A library of 90 open and closed core models of intermediate Q is generated using density functional theory to analyze the NRVS data of Q and its cryoreduced product as well as prior spectroscopic data on Q. Our analysis reveals that a subset of closed core models reproduce these newly acquired NRVS data as well as prior data. The reaction coordinate with methane is also evaluated using both closed and open core models of Q. These studies show that the potent reactivity of Q toward methane resides in the "spectator oxo" of its Fe(IV)₂O₂ core, in contrast to nonheme mononuclear Fe(IV)═O enzyme intermediates that H atoms abstract from weaker C-H bonds.

Beyond the Classical Contributions to Exchange Coupling in Binuclear Transition Metal Complexes

Complexes with two or more magnetically coupled metal ions have attracted considerable attention as catalysts of many vital processes, single-molecule magnets, or spin-crossover compounds. Elucidation of their electronic structures is essential for understanding their catalytic and magnetic properties. Here, we provide an unprecedented insight into exchange-coupling mechanisms between the magnetic centers in six prototypical bis-μ-oxo bimetallic M₂O₂ complexes, including two biologically relevant models of non-heme iron enzymes. Employing multiconfigurational/multireference methods and related orbital entanglement analysis, we revealed the essential and counterintuitive role of predominantly unoccupied valence metal d orbitals in their strong antiferromagnetic coupling. We found that the participation of these orbitals is twofold. First, they enhance the superexchange between the singly occupied d orbitals. Second, they become substantially occupied and thus directly magnetically active, which we perceive as a new mechanism of the exchange interaction between the magnetic transition metal centers.

Deciphering the origin of million-fold reactivity observed for the open core diiron [HO-FeIII-O-FeIV[double bond, length as m-dash]O]2+ species towards C-H bond activation: role of spin-states, spin-coupling, and spin-cooperation

High-valent metal-oxo species have been characterised as key intermediates in both heme and non-heme enzymes that are found to perform efficient aliphatic hydroxylation, epoxidation, halogenation, and dehydrogenation reactions. Several biomimetic model complexes have been synthesised over the years to mimic both the structure and function of metalloenzymes. The diamond-core [Fe2(μ-O)2] is one of the celebrated models in this context as this has been proposed as the catalytically active species in soluble methane monooxygenase enzymes (sMMO), which perform the challenging chemical conversion of methane to methanol at ease. In this context, a report of open core [HO(L)FeIII-O-FeIV(O)(L)]2+ (1) gains attention as this activates C-H bonds a million-fold faster compared to the diamond-core structure and has the dual catalytic ability to perform hydroxylation as well as desaturation with organic substrates. In this study, we have employed density functional methods to probe the origin of the very high reactivity observed for this complex and also to shed light on how this complex performs efficient hydroxylation and desaturation of alkanes. By modelling fifteen possible spin-states for 1 that could potentially participate in the reaction mechanism, our calculations reveal a doublet ground state for 1 arising from antiferromagnetic coupling between the quartet FeIV centre and the sextet FeIII centre, which regulates the reactivity of this species. The unusual stabilisation of the high-spin ground state for FeIV[double bond, length as m-dash]O is due to the strong overlap of with the orbital, reducing the antibonding interactions via spin-cooperation. The electronic structure features computed for 1 are consistent with experiments offering confidence in the methodology chosen. Further, we have probed various mechanistic pathways for the C-H bond activation as well as -OH rebound/desaturation of alkanes. An extremely small barrier height computed for the first hydrogen atom abstraction by the terminal FeIV[double bond, length as m-dash]O unit was found to be responsible for the million-fold activation observed in the experiments. The barrier height computed for -OH rebound by the FeIII-OH unit is also smaller suggesting a facile hydroxylation of organic substrates by 1. A strong spin-cooperation between the two iron centres also reduces the barrier for second hydrogen atom abstraction, thus making the desaturation pathway competitive. Both the spin-state as well as spin-coupling between the two metal centres play a crucial role in dictating the reactivity for species 1. By exploring various mechanistic pathways, our study unveils the fact that the bridged μ-oxo group is a poor electrophile for both C-H activation as well for -OH rebound. As more and more evidence is gathered in recent years for the open core geometry of sMMO enzymes, the idea of enhancing the reactivity via an open-core motif has far-reaching consequences.

High-Resolution Extended X-ray Absorption Fine Structure Analysis Provides Evidence for a Longer Fe···Fe Distance in the Q Intermediate of Methane Monooxygenase

Despite decades of intense research, the core structure of the methane C-H bond breaking diiron(IV) intermediate, Q, of soluble methane monooxygenase remains controversial, with conflicting reports supporting either a "diamond" diiron core structure or an open core structure. Early extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) data assigned a short 2.46 Å Fe-Fe distance to Q (Shu et al. Science 1997, 275, 515 ) that is inconsistent with several theoretical studies and in conflict with our recent high-resolution Fe K-edge X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) studies (Castillo et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2017, 139, 18024 ). Herein, we revisit the EXAFS of Q using high-energy resolution fluorescence-detected extended X-ray absorption fine structure (HERFD-EXAFS) studies. The present data show no evidence for a short Fe-Fe distance, but rather a long 3.4 Å diiron distance, as observed in open core synthetic model complexes. The previously reported 2.46 Å feature plausibly arises from a background metallic iron contribution from the experimental setup, which is eliminated in HERFD-EXAFS due to the increased selectivity. Herein, we explore the origin of the short diiron feature in partial-fluorescent yield EXAFS measurements and discuss the diagnostic features of background metallic scattering contribution to the EXAFS of dilute biological samples. Lastly, differences in sample preparation and resultant sample inhomogeneity in rapid-freeze quenched samples for EXAFS analysis are discussed. The presented approaches have broad implications for EXAFS studies of all dilute iron-containing samples.

Dioxygen Activation by Nonheme Diiron Enzymes: Diverse Dioxygen Adducts, High-Valent Intermediates, and Related Model Complexes

A growing subset of metalloenzymes activates dioxygen with nonheme diiron active sites to effect substrate oxidations that range from the hydroxylation of methane and the desaturation of fatty acids to the deformylation of fatty aldehydes to produce alkanes and the six-electron oxidation of aminoarenes to nitroarenes in the biosynthesis of antibiotics. A common feature of their reaction mechanisms is the formation of O2 adducts that evolve into more reactive derivatives such as diiron(II,III)-superoxo, diiron(III)-peroxo, diiron(III,IV)-oxo, and diiron(IV)-oxo species, which carry out particular substrate oxidation tasks. In this review, we survey the various enzymes belonging to this unique subset and the mechanisms by which substrate oxidation is carried out. We examine the nature of the reactive intermediates, as revealed by X-ray crystallography and the application of various spectroscopic methods and their associated reactivity. We also discuss the structural and electronic properties of the model complexes that have been found to mimic salient aspects of these enzyme active sites. Much has been learned in the past 25 years, but key questions remain to be answered.

High-Energy-Resolution Fluorescence-Detected X-ray Absorption of the Q Intermediate of Soluble Methane Monooxygenase

Kα high-energy-resolution fluorescence detected X-ray absorption spectroscopy (HERFD XAS) provides a powerful tool for overcoming the limitations of conventional XAS to identify the electronic structure and coordination environment of metalloprotein active sites. Herein, Fe Kα HERFD XAS is applied to the diiron active site of soluble methane monooxygenase (sMMO) and to a series of high-valent diiron model complexes, including diamond-core [FeIV2(μ-O)2(L)2](ClO4)4] (3) and open-core [(O═FeIV-O-FeIV(OH)(L)2](ClO4)3 (4) models (where, L = tris(3,5-dimethyl-4-methoxypyridyl-2-methyl)amine) (TPA*)). Pronounced differences in the HERFD XAS pre-edge energies and intensities are observed for the open versus closed Fe2O2 cores in the model compounds. These differences are reproduced by time-dependent density functional theory (TDDFT) calculations and allow for the pre-edge energies and intensity to be directly correlated with the local active site geometric and electronic structure. A comparison of the model complex HERFD XAS data to that of MMOHQ (the key intermediate in methane oxidation) is supportive of an open-core structure. Specifically, the large pre-edge area observed for MMOHQ may be rationalized by invoking an open-core structure with a terminal FeIV═O motif, though further modulations of the core structure due to the protein environment cannot be ruled out. The present study thus motivates the need for additional experimental and theoretical studies to unambiguously assess the active site conformation of MMOHQ.

CmlI N-Oxygenase Catalyzes the Final Three Steps in Chloramphenicol Biosynthesis without Dissociation of Intermediates

CmlI catalyzes the six-electron oxidation of an aryl-amine precursor (NH2-CAM) to the aryl-nitro group of chloramphenicol (CAM). The active site of CmlI contains a (hydr)oxo- and carboxylate-bridged dinuclear iron cluster. During catalysis, a novel diferric-peroxo intermediate P is formed and is thought to directly effect oxygenase chemistry. Peroxo intermediates can facilitate at most two-electron oxidations, so the biosynthetic pathway of CmlI must involve at least three steps. Here, kinetic techniques are used to characterize the rate and/or dissociation constants for each step by taking advantage of the remarkable stability of P in the absence of substrates (decay t1/2 = 3 h at 4 °C) and the visible chromophore of the diiron cluster. It is found that diferrous CmlI (CmlIred) can react with NH2-CAM and O2 in either order to form a P-NH2-CAM intermediate. P-NH2-CAM undergoes rapid oxygen transfer to form a diferric CmlI (CmlIox) complex with the aryl-hydroxylamine [NH(OH)-CAM] pathway intermediate. CmlIox-NH(OH)-CAM undergoes a rapid internal redox reaction to form a CmlIred-nitroso-CAM (NO-CAM) complex. O2 binding results in formation of P-NO-CAM that converts to CmlIox-CAM by enzyme-mediated oxygen atom transfer. The kinetic analysis indicates that there is little dissociation of pathway intermediates as the reaction progresses. Reactions initiated by adding pathway intermediates from solution occur much more slowly than those in which the intermediate is generated in the active site as part of the catalytic process. Thus, CmlI is able to preserve efficiency and specificity while avoiding adventitious chemistry by performing the entire six-electron oxidation in one active site.

Unprecedented (μ-1,1-Peroxo)diferric Structure for the Ambiphilic Orange Peroxo Intermediate of the Nonheme N-Oxygenase CmlI

The final step in the biosynthesis of the antibiotic chloramphenicol is the oxidation of an aryl-amine substrate to an aryl-nitro product catalyzed by the N-oxygenase CmlI in three two-electron steps. The CmlI active site contains a diiron cluster ligated by three histidine and four glutamate residues and activates dioxygen to perform its role in the biosynthetic pathway. It was previously shown that the active oxidant used by CmlI to facilitate this chemistry is a peroxo-diferric intermediate (CmlIP). Spectroscopic characterization demonstrated that the peroxo binding geometry of CmlIP is not consistent with the μ-1,2 mode commonly observed in nonheme diiron systems. Its geometry was tentatively assigned as μ-η2:η1 based on comparison with resonance Raman (rR) features of mixed-metal model complexes in the absence of appropriate diiron models. Here, X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) and rR studies have been used to establish a refined structure for the diferric cluster of CmlIP. The rR experiments carried out with isotopically labeled water identified the symmetric and asymmetric vibrations of an Fe-O-Fe unit in the active site at 485 and 780 cm-1, respectively, which was confirmed by the 1.83 Å Fe-O bond observed by XAS. In addition, a unique Fe···O scatterer at 2.82 Å observed from XAS analysis is assigned as arising from the distal O atom of a μ-1,1-peroxo ligand that is bound symmetrically between the irons. The (μ-oxo)(μ-1,1-peroxo)diferric core structure associated with CmlIP is unprecedented among diiron cluster-containing enzymes and corresponding biomimetic complexes. Importantly, it allows the peroxo-diferric intermediate to be ambiphilic, acting as an electrophilic oxidant in the initial N-hydroxylation of an arylamine and then becoming a nucleophilic oxidant in the final oxidation of an aryl-nitroso intermediate to the aryl-nitro product.

Evidence for a Di-μ-oxo Diamond Core in the Mn(IV)/Fe(IV) Activation Intermediate of Ribonucleotide Reductase from Chlamydia trachomatis

High-valent iron and manganese complexes effect some of the most challenging biochemical reactions known, including hydrocarbon and water oxidations associated with the global carbon cycle and oxygenic photosynthesis, respectively. Their extreme reactivity presents an impediment to structural characterization, but their biological importance and potential chemical utility have, nevertheless, motivated extensive efforts toward that end. Several such intermediates accumulate during activation of class I ribonucleotide reductase (RNR) β subunits, which self-assemble dimetal cofactors with stable one-electron oxidants that serve to initiate the enzyme's free-radical mechanism. In the class I-c β subunit from Chlamydia trachomatis, a heterodinuclear Mn(II)/Fe(II) complex reacts with dioxygen to form a Mn(IV)/Fe(IV) intermediate, which undergoes reduction of the iron site to produce the active Mn(IV)/Fe(III) cofactor. Herein, we assess the structure of the Mn(IV)/Fe(IV) activation intermediate using Fe- and Mn-edge extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) analysis and multifrequency pulse electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy. The EXAFS results reveal a metal-metal vector of 2.74-2.75 Å and an intense light-atom (C/N/O) scattering interaction 1.8 Å from the Fe. Pulse EPR data reveal an exchangeable deuterium hyperfine coupling of strength |T| = 0.7 MHz, but no stronger couplings. The results suggest that the intermediate possesses a di-μ-oxo diamond core structure with a terminal hydroxide ligand to the Mn(IV).

Geometrical properties of the manganese(iv)/iron(iii) cofactor of Chlamydia trachomatis ribonucleotide reductase unveiled by simulations of XAS spectra

A combination of EXAFS simulations and DFT calculations, including a novel protocol to evaluate Debye–Waller factors, provide insights into the structure of the Mn(iv)/Fe(iii) cofactor ofCtR2.

Remarkable Anion-Dependent Spin-State Switching in Diiron(III) μ-Hydroxo Bisporphyrins: What Role do Counterions Play?

Addition of 2,4,6-trinitrophenol (HTNP) to an ethene-bridged diiron(III) μ-oxo bisporphyrin (1) in CH₂ Cl₂ initially leads to the formation of diiron(III) μ-hydroxo bisporphyrin (2⋅TNP) with a phenolate counterion that, after further addition of HTNP or dissolution in a nonpolar solvent, converts to a diiron(III) complex with axial phenoxide coordination (3⋅(TNP)₂ ). The progress of the reaction from μ-oxo to μ-hydroxo to axially ligated complex has been monitored in solution by using ¹ H NMR spectroscopy because their signals appear in three different and distinct spectral regions. The X-ray structure of 2⋅TNP revealed that the nearly planar TNP counterion fits perfectly within the bisporphyrin cavity to form a strong hydrogen bond with the μ-hydroxo group, which thus stabilizes the two equivalent iron centers. In contrast, such counterions as I₅ , I₃ , BF₄ , SbF₆ , and PF₆ are found to be tightly associated with one of the porphyrin rings and, therefore, stabilize two different spin states of iron in one molecule. A spectroscopic investigation of 2⋅TNP has revealed the presence of two equivalent iron centers with a high-spin state (S=5/2) in the solid state that converts to intermediate spin (S=3/2) in solution. An extensive computational study by using a range of DFT methods was performed on 2⋅TNP and 2⁺ , and clearly supports the experimentally observed spin flip triggered by hydrogen-bonding interactions. The counterion is shown to perturb the spin-state ordering through, for example, hydrogen-bonding interactions, switched positions between counterion and axial ligand, ion-pair interactions, and charge polarization. The present investigation thus provides a clear rationalization of the unusual counterion-specific spin states observed in the μ-hydroxo bisporphyrins that have so far remained the most outstanding issue.

X-ray absorption spectroscopic characterization of the diferric-peroxo intermediate of human deoxyhypusine hydroxylase in the presence of its substrate eIF5a

Human deoxyhypusine hydroxylase (hDOHH) is an enzyme that is involved in the critical post-translational modification of the eukaryotic translation initiation factor 5A (eIF5A). Following the conversion of a lysine residue on eIF5A to deoxyhypusine (Dhp) by deoxyhypusine synthase, hDOHH hydroxylates Dhp to yield the unusual amino acid residue hypusine (Hpu), a modification that is essential for eIF5A to promote peptide synthesis at the ribosome, among other functions. Purification of hDOHH overexpressed in E. coli affords enzyme that is blue in color, a feature that has been associated with the presence of a peroxo-bridged diiron(III) active site. To gain further insight into the nature of the diiron site and how it may change as hDOHH goes through the catalytic cycle, we have conducted X-ray absorption spectroscopic studies of hDOHH on five samples that represent different species along its reaction pathway. Structural analysis of each species has been carried out, starting with the reduced diferrous state, proceeding through its O2 adduct, and ending with a diferric decay product. Our results show that the Fe⋯Fe distances found for the five samples fall within a narrow range of 3.4-3.5 Å, suggesting that hDOHH has a fairly constrained active site. This pattern differs significantly from what has been associated with canonical dioxygen activating nonheme diiron enzymes, such as soluble methane monooxygenase and Class 1A ribonucleotide reductases, for which the Fe⋯Fe distance can change by as much as 1 Å during the redox cycle. These results suggest that the O2 activation mechanism for hDOHH deviates somewhat from that associated with the canonical nonheme diiron enzymes, opening the door to new mechanistic possibilities for this intriguing family of enzymes.

Structure/function correlations over binuclear non-heme iron active sites

Binuclear non-heme iron enzymes activate O2 to perform diverse chemistries. Three different structural mechanisms of O2 binding to a coupled binuclear iron site have been identified utilizing variable-temperature, variable-field magnetic circular dichroism spectroscopy (VTVH MCD). For the μ-OH-bridged Fe(II)2 site in hemerythrin, O2 binds terminally to a five-coordinate Fe(II) center as hydroperoxide with the proton deriving from the μ-OH bridge and the second electron transferring through the resulting μ-oxo superexchange pathway from the second coordinatively saturated Fe(II) center in a proton-coupled electron transfer process. For carboxylate-only-bridged Fe(II)2 sites, O2 binding as a bridged peroxide requires both Fe(II) centers to be coordinatively unsaturated and has good frontier orbital overlap with the two orthogonal O2 π* orbitals to form peroxo-bridged Fe(III)2 intermediates. Alternatively, carboxylate-only-bridged Fe(II)2 sites with only a single open coordination position on an Fe(II) enable the one-electron formation of Fe(III)-O2 (-) or Fe(III)-NO(-) species. Finally, for the peroxo-bridged Fe(III)2 intermediates, further activation is necessary for their reactivities in one-electron reduction and electrophilic aromatic substitution, and a strategy consistent with existing spectral data is discussed.

Catalytic strategy for carbon-carbon bond scission by the cytochrome P450 OleT

OleT is a cytochrome P450 that catalyzes the hydrogen peroxide-dependent metabolism of Cn chain-length fatty acids to synthesize Cn-1 1-alkenes. The decarboxylation reaction provides a route for the production of drop-in hydrocarbon fuels from a renewable and abundant natural resource. This transformation is highly unusual for a P450, which typically uses an Fe(4+)-oxo intermediate known as compound I for the insertion of oxygen into organic substrates. OleT, previously shown to form compound I, catalyzes a different reaction. A large substrate kinetic isotope effect (≥8) for OleT compound I decay confirms that, like monooxygenation, alkene formation is initiated by substrate C-H bond abstraction. Rather than finalizing the reaction through rapid oxygen rebound, alkene synthesis proceeds through the formation of a reaction cycle intermediate with kinetics, optical properties, and reactivity indicative of an Fe(4+)-OH species, compound II. The direct observation of this intermediate, normally fleeting in hydroxylases, provides a rationale for the carbon-carbon scission reaction catalyzed by OleT.

Composition and Structure of the Inorganic Core of Relaxed Intermediate X(Y122F) of Escherichia coli Ribonucleotide Reductase

Activation of the diferrous center of the β2 (R2) subunit of the class 1a Escherichia coli ribonucleotide reductases by reaction with O2 followed by one-electron reduction yields a spin-coupled, paramagnetic Fe(III)/Fe(IV) intermediate, denoted X, whose identity has been sought by multiple investigators for over a quarter of a century. To determine the composition and structure of X, the present study has applied (57)Fe, (14,15)N, (17)O, and (1)H electron nuclear double resonance (ENDOR) measurements combined with quantitative measurements of (17)O and (1)H electron paramagnetic resonance line-broadening studies to wild-type X, which is very short-lived, and to X prepared with the Y122F mutant, which has a lifetime of many seconds. Previous studies have established that over several seconds the as-formed X(Y122F) relaxes to an equilibrium structure. The present study focuses on the relaxed structure. It establishes that the inorganic core of relaxed X has the composition [(OH(-))Fe(III)-O-Fe(IV)]: there is no second inorganic oxygenic bridge, neither oxo nor hydroxo. Geometric analysis of the (14)N ENDOR data, together with recent extended X-ray absorption fine structure measurements of the Fe-Fe distance (Dassama, L. M.; et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2013, 135, 16758), supports the view that X contains a "diamond-core" Fe(III)/Fe(IV) center, with the irons bridged by two ligands. One bridging ligand is the oxo bridge (OBr) derived from O2 gas. Given the absence of a second inorganic oxygenic bridge, the second bridging ligand must be protein derived, and is most plausibly assigned as a carboxyl oxygen from E238.

Structural Basis for Oxygen Activation at a Heterodinuclear Manganese/Iron Cofactor

Two recently discovered groups of prokaryotic di-metal carboxylate proteins harbor a heterodinuclear Mn/Fe cofactor. These are the class Ic ribonucleotide reductase R2 proteins and a group of oxidases that are found predominantly in pathogens and extremophiles, called R2-like ligand-binding oxidases (R2lox). We have recently shown that the Mn/Fe cofactor of R2lox self-assembles from Mn(II) and Fe(II) in vitro and catalyzes formation of a tyrosine-valine ether cross-link in the protein scaffold (Griese, J. J., Roos, K., Cox, N., Shafaat, H. S., Branca, R. M., Lehtiö, J., Gräslund, A., Lubitz, W., Siegbahn, P. E., and Högbom, M. (2013) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 110, 17189-17194). Here, we present a detailed structural analysis of R2lox in the nonactivated, reduced, and oxidized resting Mn/Fe- and Fe/Fe-bound states, as well as the nonactivated Mn/Mn-bound state. X-ray crystallography and x-ray absorption spectroscopy demonstrate that the active site ligand configuration of R2lox is essentially the same regardless of cofactor composition. Both the Mn/Fe and the diiron cofactor activate oxygen and catalyze formation of the ether cross-link, whereas the dimanganese cluster does not. The structures delineate likely routes for gated oxygen and substrate access to the active site that are controlled by the redox state of the cofactor. These results suggest that oxygen activation proceeds via similar mechanisms at the Mn/Fe and Fe/Fe center and that R2lox proteins might utilize either cofactor in vivo based on metal availability.

Synthesis of carboxylate-bridged iron-thiolate clusters from alcohols/aldehydes or carboxylate salts

A series of novel carboxylate-bridged cyclopentadienyl diiron complexes [Cp*Fe(μ-SEt)2(μ-η(2)-OOCR)FeCp*][PF6] (, R = H; , R = Me; , R = Et; , R = Pr-n; , R = Ph; , R = p-Me-C6H4; , R = PhCH[double bond, length as m-dash]CH; , CH[triple bond, length as m-dash]C) were obtained from alcohols/aldehydes or sodium carboxylates at room temperature. These eight complexes were fully characterized by spectroscopy, and some of them (, , and ) were further studied by X-ray crystallography. In addition, the electrochemical properties of clusters and are also discussed.

Toward the synthesis of more reactive S = 2 non-heme oxoiron(IV) complexes

2003 marked a banner year in the bioinorganic chemistry of mononuclear non-heme iron enzymes. The first non-heme oxoiron(IV) intermediate (called J) was trapped and characterized by Bollinger and Krebs in the catalytic cycle of taurine dioxygenase (TauD), and the first crystal structure of a synthetic non-heme oxoiron(IV) complex was reported by Münck, Nam, and Que. These results stimulated inorganic chemists to synthesize related oxoiron(IV) complexes to shed light on the electronic structures and spectroscopic properties of these novel intermediates and gain mechanistic insights into their function in biology. All of the biological oxoiron(IV) intermediates discovered since 2003 have an S = 2 ground spin state, while over 90% of the 60 or so synthetic oxoiron(IV) complexes reported to date have an S = 1 ground spin state. This difference in electronic structure has fueled an interest to more accurately model these enzymatic intermediates and synthesize S = 2 oxoiron(IV) complexes.

This Account follows up on a previous Account (Acc. Chem. Res. 2007, 40, 493) that provided a perspective on the early developments in this field up to 2007 and details our group’s efforts in the development of synthetic strategies to obtain oxoiron(IV) complexes with an S = 2 ground state. Upon inspection of a qualitative d-orbital splitting diagram for a d⁴ metal–oxo center, it becomes evident that the key to achieving an S = 2 ground state is to decrease the energy gap between the d_x²–y² and d_xy orbitals. Described below are two different synthetic strategies we used to accomplish this goal.

The first strategy took advantage of the realization that the d_x²–y² and d_xy orbitals become degenerate in a C₃-symmetric ligand environment. Thus, by employing bulky tripodal ligands, trigonal-bipyramidal S = 2 oxoiron(IV) complexes were obtained. However, substrate access to the oxoiron(IV) center was hindered by the bulky ligands, and the complexes showed limited ability to cleave substrate C–H bonds. The second strategy entailed introducing weaker-field equatorial ligands in six-coordinate oxoiron(IV) complexes to decrease the d_x²–y²/d_xy energy gap to the point where the S = 2 ground state is favored. These pseudo-octahedral S = 2 oxoiron(IV) complexes exhibit high H-atom transfer reactivity relative to their S = 1 counterparts and shed light on the role that the spin state may play in these reactions. Among these complexes is a highly reactive species that to date represents the closest electronic and functional model of the enzymatic intermediate, TauD-J.

Transition metal complexes and the activation of dioxygen

In order to address how diverse metalloprotein active sites, in particular those containing iron and copper, guide O₂binding and activation processes to perform diverse functions, studies of synthetic models of the active sites have been performed. These studies have led to deep, fundamental chemical insights into how O₂coordinates to mono- and multinuclear Fe and Cu centers and is reduced to superoxo, peroxo, hydroperoxo, and, after O-O bond scission, oxo species relevant to proposed intermediates in catalysis. Recent advances in understanding the various factors that influence the course of O₂activation by Fe and Cu complexes are surveyed, with an emphasis on evaluating the structure, bonding, and reactivity of intermediates involved. The discussion is guided by an overarching mechanistic paradigm, with differences in detail due to the involvement of disparate metal ions, nuclearities, geometries, and supporting ligands providing a rich tapestry of reaction pathways by which O₂is activated at Fe and Cu sites.

Study of iron dimers reveals angular dependence of valence-to-core X-ray emission spectra

Transition-metal Kβ X-ray emission spectroscopy (XES) is a developing technique that probes the occupied molecular orbitals of a metal complex. As an element-specific probe of metal centers, Kβ XES is finding increasing applications in catalytic and, in particular, bioinorganic systems. For the continued development of XES as a probe of these complex systems, however, the full range of factors which contribute to XES spectral modulations must be explored. In this report, an investigation of a series of oxo-bridged iron dimers reveals that the intensity of valence-to-core features is sensitive to the Fe-O-Fe bond angle. The intensity of these features has a well-known dependence on metal-ligand bond distance, but a dependence upon bond angle has not previously been documented. Herein, we explore the angular dependence of valence-to-core XES features both experimentally and computationally. Taken together, these results show that, as the Fe-O-Fe angle decreases, the intensity of the Kβ″ feature increases and that this effect is modulated by increasing amounts of Fe np mixing into the O 2s orbital at smaller bond angles. The relevance of these findings to the identification of oxygenated intermediates in bioinorganic systems is highlighted, with special emphasis given to the case of soluble methane monooxygenase.

Assembly of nonheme Mn/Fe active sites in heterodinuclear metalloproteins

The ferritin superfamily contains several protein groups that share a common fold and metal coordinating ligands. The different groups utilize different dinuclear cofactors to perform a diverse set of reactions. Several groups use an oxygen-activating di-iron cluster, while others use di-manganese or heterodinuclear Mn/Fe cofactors. Given the similar primary ligand preferences of Mn and Fe as well as the similarities between the binding sites, the basis for metal specificity in these systems remains enigmatic. Recent data for the heterodinuclear cluster show that the protein scaffold per se is capable of discriminating between Mn and Fe and can assemble the Mn/Fe center in the absence of any potential assembly machineries or metal chaperones. Here we review the current understanding of the assembly of the heterodinuclear cofactor in the two different protein groups in which it has been identified, ribonucleotide reductase R2c proteins and R2-like ligand-binding oxidases. Interestingly, although the two groups form the same metal cluster they appear to employ partly different mechanisms to assemble it. In addition, it seems that both the thermodynamics of metal binding and the kinetics of oxygen activation play a role in achieving metal specificity.

Geometric and electronic structure of the Mn(IV)Fe(III) cofactor in class Ic ribonucleotide reductase: correlation to the class Ia binuclear non-heme iron enzyme

The class Ic ribonucleotide reductase (RNR) from Chlamydia trachomatis (Ct) utilizes a Mn/Fe heterobinuclear cofactor, rather than the Fe/Fe cofactor found in the β (R2) subunit of the class Ia enzymes, to react with O2. This reaction produces a stable Mn(IV)Fe(III) cofactor that initiates a radical, which transfers to the adjacent α (R1) subunit and reacts with the substrate. We have studied the Mn(IV)Fe(III) cofactor using nuclear resonance vibrational spectroscopy (NRVS) and absorption (Abs)/circular dichroism (CD)/magnetic CD (MCD)/variable temperature, variable field (VTVH) MCD spectroscopies to obtain detailed insight into its geometric/electronic structure and to correlate structure with reactivity; NRVS focuses on the Fe(III), whereas MCD reflects the spin-allowed transitions mostly on the Mn(IV). We have evaluated 18 systematically varied structures. Comparison of the simulated NRVS spectra to the experimental data shows that the cofactor has one carboxylate bridge, with Mn(IV) at the site proximal to Phe127. Abs/CD/MCD/VTVH MCD data exhibit 12 transitions that are assigned as d-d and oxo and OH(-) to metal charge-transfer (CT) transitions. Assignments are based on MCD/Abs intensity ratios, transition energies, polarizations, and derivative-shaped pseudo-A term CT transitions. Correlating these results with TD-DFT calculations defines the Mn(IV)Fe(III) cofactor as having a μ-oxo, μ-hydroxo core and a terminal hydroxo ligand on the Mn(IV). From DFT calculations, the Mn(IV) at site 1 is necessary to tune the redox potential to a value similar to that of the tyrosine radical in class Ia RNR, and the OH(-) terminal ligand on this Mn(IV) provides a high proton affinity that could gate radical translocation to the α (R1) subunit.