1
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Wang Y, Torma KJ, Pyser JB, Zimmerman PM, Narayan ARH. Substrate-Selective Catalysis Enabled Synthesis of Azaphilone Natural Products. ACS CENTRAL SCIENCE 2024; 10:708-716. [PMID: 38559303 PMCID: PMC10979483 DOI: 10.1021/acscentsci.3c01405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2023] [Revised: 02/05/2024] [Accepted: 02/16/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024]
Abstract
Achieving substrate-selectivity is a central element of nature's approach to synthesis. By relying on the ability of a catalyst to discriminate between components in a mixture, control can be exerted over which molecules will move forward in a synthesis. This approach can be powerful when realized but can be challenging to duplicate in the laboratory. In this work, substrate-selective catalysis is leveraged to discriminate between two intermediates that exist in equilibrium, subsequently directing the final cyclization to arrive at either the linear or angular tricyclic core common to subsets of azaphilone natural products. By using a flavin-dependent monooxygenase (FDMO) in sequence with an acyl transferase (AT), the conversion of several orcinaldehyde substrates directly to the corresponding linear tricyclic azaphilones in a single reaction vessel was achieved. Further, mechanistic studies support that a substrate equilibrium together with enzyme substrate selectivity play an import role in the selectivity of the final cyclization step. Using this strategy, five azaphilone natural products were synthesized for the first time as well as a number of unnatural derivatives thereof.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ye Wang
- Life
Sciences Institute, Department of Chemistry, University of
Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Katherine J. Torma
- Life
Sciences Institute, Department of Chemistry, University of
Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Joshua B. Pyser
- Life
Sciences Institute, Department of Chemistry, University of
Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Paul M. Zimmerman
- Life
Sciences Institute, Department of Chemistry, University of
Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Alison R. H. Narayan
- Life
Sciences Institute, Department of Chemistry, University of
Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
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2
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Hecko S, Schiefer A, Badenhorst CPS, Fink MJ, Mihovilovic MD, Bornscheuer UT, Rudroff F. Enlightening the Path to Protein Engineering: Chemoselective Turn-On Probes for High-Throughput Screening of Enzymatic Activity. Chem Rev 2023; 123:2832-2901. [PMID: 36853077 PMCID: PMC10037340 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.2c00304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/01/2023]
Abstract
Many successful stories in enzyme engineering are based on the creation of randomized diversity in large mutant libraries, containing millions to billions of enzyme variants. Methods that enabled their evaluation with high throughput are dominated by spectroscopic techniques due to their high speed and sensitivity. A large proportion of studies relies on fluorogenic substrates that mimic the chemical properties of the target or coupled enzymatic assays with an optical read-out that assesses the desired catalytic efficiency indirectly. The most reliable hits, however, are achieved by screening for conversions of the starting material to the desired product. For this purpose, functional group assays offer a general approach to achieve a fast, optical read-out. They use the chemoselectivity, differences in electronic and steric properties of various functional groups, to reduce the number of false-positive results and the analytical noise stemming from enzymatic background activities. This review summarizes the developments and use of functional group probes for chemoselective derivatizations, with a clear focus on screening for enzymatic activity in protein engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Hecko
- Institute of Applied Synthetic Chemistry, OC-163, TU Wien, Getreidemarkt 9, 1060 Vienna, Austria
| | - Astrid Schiefer
- Institute of Applied Synthetic Chemistry, OC-163, TU Wien, Getreidemarkt 9, 1060 Vienna, Austria
| | - Christoffel P S Badenhorst
- Institute of Biochemistry, Dept. of Biotechnology & Enzyme Catalysis, University of Greifswald, Felix-Hausdorff-Str. 4, 17489 Greifswald, Germany
| | - Michael J Fink
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, 12 Oxford St, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Marko D Mihovilovic
- Institute of Applied Synthetic Chemistry, OC-163, TU Wien, Getreidemarkt 9, 1060 Vienna, Austria
| | - Uwe T Bornscheuer
- Institute of Biochemistry, Dept. of Biotechnology & Enzyme Catalysis, University of Greifswald, Felix-Hausdorff-Str. 4, 17489 Greifswald, Germany
| | - Florian Rudroff
- Institute of Applied Synthetic Chemistry, OC-163, TU Wien, Getreidemarkt 9, 1060 Vienna, Austria
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3
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Zhang Z, He X, Zhang X, Li D, Wu G, Liu Z, Niu C, Yang L, Song W, Li Z, Wang Z. Production of Multiple Talaroenamines from Penicillium malacosphaerulum via One-Pot/Two-Stage Precursor-Directed Biosynthesis. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2022; 85:2168-2176. [PMID: 35993848 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.2c00394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Nineteen new talaroenamine derivatives, talaroenamines F1-F19 (1-19), were isolated from the Yellow River wetland derived Penicillium malacosphaerulum HPU-J01 by use of a one-pot/two-stage precursor-directed biosynthesis approach. During this approach, the initial precursor p-methylaniline was first used as a carrier to capture the biologically synthesized cyclohexanedione to produce talaroenamine F, and then the other aniline derivatives were employed to replace the p-methylaniline fragment of talaroenamine F to generate the final products. LC-MS analysis showed that only four compounds (2, 8, 10, and 12) could be produced by the traditional precursor-directed biosynthesis in which the aniline precursors were added simultaneously. Compound 14 was cytotoxic against the K562 cell line with an IC50 value of 2.2 μM. This work demonstrated the one-pot/two-stage precursor-directed biosynthesis could improve substrate acceptance leading to the production of diverse talaroenamines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenzhen Zhang
- School of Medicine, Henan Polytechnic University, Jiaozuo, 454000, People's Republic of China
| | - Xueqian He
- School of Medicine, Henan Polytechnic University, Jiaozuo, 454000, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaomin Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Marine Drugs, Chinese Ministry of Education, School of Medicine and Pharmacy, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266003, People's Republic of China
| | - Dehai Li
- Key Laboratory of Marine Drugs, Chinese Ministry of Education, School of Medicine and Pharmacy, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266003, People's Republic of China
| | - Guangwei Wu
- College of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhenzhen Liu
- School of Medicine, Henan Polytechnic University, Jiaozuo, 454000, People's Republic of China
| | - Chao Niu
- School of Medicine, Henan Polytechnic University, Jiaozuo, 454000, People's Republic of China
| | - Lanping Yang
- School of Medicine, Henan Polytechnic University, Jiaozuo, 454000, People's Republic of China
| | - Wenting Song
- School of Medicine, Henan Polytechnic University, Jiaozuo, 454000, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhanlin Li
- School of Medicine, Henan Polytechnic University, Jiaozuo, 454000, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhenhui Wang
- School of Medicine, Henan Polytechnic University, Jiaozuo, 454000, People's Republic of China
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4
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Chakrabarty S, Romero EO, Pyser JB, Yazarians JA, Narayan ARH. Chemoenzymatic Total Synthesis of Natural Products. Acc Chem Res 2021; 54:1374-1384. [PMID: 33600149 PMCID: PMC8210581 DOI: 10.1021/acs.accounts.0c00810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The total synthesis of structurally complex natural products has challenged and inspired generations of chemists and remains an exciting area of active research. Despite their history as privileged bioactivity-rich scaffolds, the use of natural products in drug discovery has waned. This shift is driven by their relatively low abundance hindering isolation from natural sources and the challenges presented by their synthesis. Recent developments in biocatalysis have resulted in the application of enzymes for the construction of complex molecules. From the inception of the Narayan lab in 2015, we have focused on harnessing the exquisite selectivity of enzymes alongside contemporary small molecule-based approaches to enable concise chemoenzymatic routes to natural products.We have focused on enzymes from various families that perform selective oxidation reactions. For example, we have targeted xyloketal natural products through a strategy that relies on a chemo- and site-selective biocatalytic hydroxylation. Members of the xyloketal family are characterized by polycyclic ketal cores and demonstrate potent neurological activity. We envisioned assembling a representative xyloketal natural product (xyloketal D) involving a biocatalytically generated ortho-quinone methide intermediate. The non-heme iron (NHI) dependent monooxygenase ClaD was used to perform the benzylic hydroxylation of a resorcinol precursor, the product of which can undergo spontaneous loss of water to form an ortho-quinone methide under mild conditions. This intermediate was trapped using a chiral dienophile to complete the total synthesis of xyloketal D.A second class of biocatalytic oxidation that we have employed in synthesis is the hydroxylative dearomatization of resorcinol compounds using flavin-dependent monooxygenases (FDMOs). We anticipated that the catalyst-controlled site- and stereoselectivity of FDMOs would enable the total synthesis of azaphilone natural products. Azaphilones are bioactive compounds characterized by a pyranoquinone bicyclic core and a fully substituted chiral carbon atom. We leveraged the stereodivergent reactivity of FDMOs AzaH and AfoD to achieve the enantioselective synthesis of trichoflectin enantiomers, deflectin 1a, and lunatoic acid. We also leveraged FDMOs to construct tropolone and sorbicillinoid natural products. Tropolones are a structurally diverse class of bioactive molecules characterized by an aromatic cycloheptatriene core bearing an α-hydroxyketone moiety. We developed a two-step biocatalytic cascade to the tropolone natural product stipitatic aldehyde using the FDMO TropB and a NHI monooxygenase TropC. The FDMO SorbC obtained from the sorbicillin biosynthetic pathway was used in the concise total synthesis of a urea sorbicillinoid natural product.Our long-standing interest in using enzymes to carry out C-H hydroxylation reactions has also been channeled for the late-stage diversification of complex scaffolds. For example, we have used Rieske oxygenases to hydroxylate the tricyclic core common to paralytic shellfish toxins. The systemic toxicity of these compounds can be reduced by adding hydroxyl and sulfate groups, which improves their properties and potential as therapeutic agents. The enzymes SxtT, GxtA, SxtN, and SxtSUL were used to carry out selective C-H hydroxylation and O-sulfation in saxitoxin and related structures. We conclude this Account with a discussion of existing challenges in biocatalysis and ways we can currently address them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suman Chakrabarty
- Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Evan O. Romero
- Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Joshua B. Pyser
- Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Jessica A. Yazarians
- Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Alison R. H. Narayan
- Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
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5
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Ambrose AJ, Pham NT, Sivinski J, Guimarães L, Mollasalehi N, Jimenez P, Abad MA, Jeyaprakash AA, Shave S, Costa-Lotufo LV, La Clair JJ, Auer M, Chapman E. A two-step resin based approach to reveal survivin-selective fluorescent probes. RSC Chem Biol 2021; 2:181-186. [PMID: 34458780 PMCID: PMC8342005 DOI: 10.1039/d0cb00122h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2020] [Accepted: 11/07/2020] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
The identification of modulators for proteins without assayable biochemical activity remains a challenge in chemical biology. The presented approach adapts a high-throughput fluorescence binding assay and functional chromatography, two protein-resin technologies, enabling the discovery and isolation of fluorescent natural product probes that target proteins independently of biochemical function. The resulting probes also suggest targetable pockets for lead discovery. Using human survivin as a model, we demonstrate this method with the discovery of members of the prodiginine family as fluorescent probes to the cancer target survivin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J Ambrose
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, University of Arizona Tucson AZ 85721 USA
| | - Nhan T Pham
- School of Biological Sciences and Edinburgh Medical School, Biomedical Sciences, University of Edinburgh The King's Buildings CH Waddington Building 3.07 Max Born Crescent Edinburgh EH9 3BF UK
| | - Jared Sivinski
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, University of Arizona Tucson AZ 85721 USA
| | - Larissa Guimarães
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, University of Arizona Tucson AZ 85721 USA
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Universidade de São Paulo São Paulo SP 05508-900 Brazil
| | - Niloufar Mollasalehi
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, University of Arizona Tucson AZ 85721 USA
| | - Paula Jimenez
- Instituto do Mar, Universidade Federal de São Paulo Santos SP 11.070-100 Brazil
| | - Maria A Abad
- Wellcome Centre for Cell Biology, University of Edinburgh Edinburgh EH9 3BF UK
| | | | - Steven Shave
- School of Biological Sciences and Edinburgh Medical School, Biomedical Sciences, University of Edinburgh The King's Buildings CH Waddington Building 3.07 Max Born Crescent Edinburgh EH9 3BF UK
| | | | - James J La Clair
- Xenobe Research Institute P. O. Box 3052 San Diego CA 92163-1052 USA
| | - Manfred Auer
- School of Biological Sciences and Edinburgh Medical School, Biomedical Sciences, University of Edinburgh The King's Buildings CH Waddington Building 3.07 Max Born Crescent Edinburgh EH9 3BF UK
| | - Eli Chapman
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, University of Arizona Tucson AZ 85721 USA
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6
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Jeon S, Kim TI, Jin H, Lee U, Bae J, Bouffard J, Kim Y. Amine-Reactive Activated Esters of meso-CarboxyBODIPY: Fluorogenic Assays and Labeling of Amines, Amino Acids, and Proteins. J Am Chem Soc 2020; 142:9231-9239. [DOI: 10.1021/jacs.9b13982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sungjin Jeon
- Department of Chemistry and Research Institute of Basic Sciences, Kyung Hee University, 26 Kyungheedae-ro, Dongdaemun-gu, Seoul 02447, Korea
| | - Tae-Il Kim
- Department of Chemistry and Research Institute of Basic Sciences, Kyung Hee University, 26 Kyungheedae-ro, Dongdaemun-gu, Seoul 02447, Korea
| | - Hanyong Jin
- Department of Life Science, Chung-Ang University, 84 Heukseok-ro, Dongjak-gu, Seoul 06974, Korea
| | - Uisung Lee
- Department of Chemistry and Research Institute of Basic Sciences, Kyung Hee University, 26 Kyungheedae-ro, Dongdaemun-gu, Seoul 02447, Korea
| | - Jeehyeon Bae
- School of Pharmacy, Chung-Ang University, 84 Heukseok-ro, Dongjak-gu, Seoul 06974, Korea
| | - Jean Bouffard
- Department of Chemistry and Nanoscience (BK 21 Plus), Ewha Womans University, 52 Ewhayeodae-gil, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 03760, Korea
| | - Youngmi Kim
- Department of Chemistry and Research Institute of Basic Sciences, Kyung Hee University, 26 Kyungheedae-ro, Dongdaemun-gu, Seoul 02447, Korea
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7
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Dos Santos Costa R, do Espírito-Santo RF, Abreu LS, de Oliveira Aguiar L, Leite Fontes D, Fechine Tavares J, Sobral da Silva M, Botelho Pereira Soares M, da Silva Velozo E, Flora Villarreal C. Fluorescent Canthin-6-one Alkaloids from Simaba bahiensis: Isolation, Identification, and Cell-Labeling Properties. Chempluschem 2020; 84:260-267. [PMID: 31950762 DOI: 10.1002/cplu.201800591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2019] [Revised: 01/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Canthin-6-one alkaloids, which are present in plants of the genus Simaba, are natural compounds that are capable of acting as fluorescent probes. However, the chemical composition and fluorescent properties of most species of this genus have not been analyzed. The objective of this study was to characterize the fluorescent properties of an extract of S. bahiensis and identify the chemical entities responsible for these properties. In addition, the cell-labeling properties of the fluorescent dye from A and of the isolated compounds were characterized by confocal fluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry. One quassinoid and three fluorescent alkaloids were isolated from S. bahiensis, all compounds were identified by using NMR spectroscopy and high-resolution mass spectrometry. Staining experiments and HPLC-FL analysis shown that canthin-6-one alkaloids are the main green fluorescent compounds in the analyzed dyes. All compounds evaluated showed a cytoplasmic marker with a residence time of 24 h. The present study is the first to describe the presence of canthin-6-one alkaloids in S. bahiensis, in addition to demonstrating promising cell-labeling properties of fluorescent compounds from S. bahiensis with broad emission wavelengths.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael Dos Santos Costa
- Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Bahia (UFBA) Salvador, Bahia, Brazil.,Department of Medicine School of Pharmacy, Federal University of Bahia Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
| | - Renan Fernandes do Espírito-Santo
- Department of Medicine School of Pharmacy, Federal University of Bahia Salvador, Bahia, Brazil.,Laboratory of Tissue Engineering and Immunopharmacology, Gonçalo Moniz Institute Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ) Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
| | - Lucas Silva Abreu
- Graduate Program in Natural and Synthetic Bioactive Products, Federal University of Paraíba (UFPB) João Pessoa, Paraíba, Brazil
| | | | - Dara Leite Fontes
- Department of Medicine School of Pharmacy, Federal University of Bahia Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
| | - Josean Fechine Tavares
- Graduate Program in Natural and Synthetic Bioactive Products, Federal University of Paraíba (UFPB) João Pessoa, Paraíba, Brazil
| | - Marcelo Sobral da Silva
- Graduate Program in Natural and Synthetic Bioactive Products, Federal University of Paraíba (UFPB) João Pessoa, Paraíba, Brazil
| | - Milena Botelho Pereira Soares
- Laboratory of Tissue Engineering and Immunopharmacology, Gonçalo Moniz Institute Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ) Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
| | - Eudes da Silva Velozo
- Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Bahia (UFBA) Salvador, Bahia, Brazil.,Department of Medicine School of Pharmacy, Federal University of Bahia Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
| | - Cristiane Flora Villarreal
- Department of Medicine School of Pharmacy, Federal University of Bahia Salvador, Bahia, Brazil.,Laboratory of Tissue Engineering and Immunopharmacology, Gonçalo Moniz Institute Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ) Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
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8
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Pyser JB, Baker Dockrey SA, Benítez AR, Joyce LA, Wiscons RA, Smith JL, Narayan ARH. Stereodivergent, Chemoenzymatic Synthesis of Azaphilone Natural Products. J Am Chem Soc 2019; 141:18551-18559. [PMID: 31692339 PMCID: PMC7029798 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.9b09385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Selective access to a targeted isomer is often critical in the synthesis of biologically active molecules. Whereas small-molecule reagents and catalysts often act with anticipated site- and stereoselectivity, this predictability does not extend to enzymes. Further, the lack of access to catalysts that provide complementary selectivity creates a challenge in the application of biocatalysis in synthesis. Here, we report an approach for accessing biocatalysts with complementary selectivity that is orthogonal to protein engineering. Through the use of a sequence similarity network (SSN), a number of sequences were selected, and the corresponding biocatalysts were evaluated for reactivity and selectivity. With a number of biocatalysts identified that operate with complementary site- and stereoselectivity, these catalysts were employed in the stereodivergent, chemoenzymatic synthesis of azaphilone natural products. Specifically, the first syntheses of trichoflectin, deflectin-1a, and lunatoic acid A were achieved. In addition, chemoenzymatic syntheses of these azaphilones supplied enantioenriched material for reassignment of the absolute configuration of trichoflectin and deflectin-1a based on optical rotation, CD spectra, and X-ray crystallography.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua B. Pyser
- Department of Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
- Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
| | - Summer A. Baker Dockrey
- Department of Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
- Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
| | - Attabey Rodríguez Benítez
- Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
- Program in Chemical Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
| | - Leo A. Joyce
- Department of Process Research & Development, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey 07065
| | - Ren A. Wiscons
- Department of Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
| | - Janet L. Smith
- Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
- Program in Chemical Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
| | - Alison R. H. Narayan
- Department of Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
- Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
- Program in Chemical Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
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9
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Oger S, Schapman D, Mougeot R, Leleu S, Lascoux N, Baldeck P, Bénard M, Gallavardin T, Galas L, Franck X. Two-Photon Absorption and Cell Imaging of Fluorene-Functionalized Epicocconone Analogues. Chemistry 2019; 25:10954-10964. [PMID: 31215691 DOI: 10.1002/chem.201902731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Epicocconone 1 is a natural chromophore isolated from the fungus Epicoccum nigrum that has shown applications in proteomics and fluorescent microscopy thanks to its unique pro-fluorescence properties. The modification of the skeleton of the natural product by replacing the triene side chain by a fluorenyl scaffold can noticeably increase the fluorophore's absorption coefficient. The synthesis of the analogues of the natural product has been made possible by the use of a palladium-catalyzed carbonylation reaction, allowing the construction of the β-keto-dioxinone key intermediate. Two-photon absorption cross-section measurements of the fluorenyl epicocconone analogues show a structure dependency with values ranging from 60 to 280 GM and live cell imaging show intense staining of intracellular vesicle-like structures around the nucleus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Oger
- COBRA (UMR 6014 and FR 3038), Normandie Univ, CNRS, INSA Rouen, UNIROUEN, 76000, Rouen, France
| | - Damien Schapman
- PRIMACEN, Cell Imaging Platform of Normandy, Institute for Research and Innovation in Biomedicine (IRIB), Normandie Univ, Inserm, UNIROUEN, 76000, Rouen, France
| | - Romain Mougeot
- COBRA (UMR 6014 and FR 3038), Normandie Univ, CNRS, INSA Rouen, UNIROUEN, 76000, Rouen, France
| | - Stéphane Leleu
- COBRA (UMR 6014 and FR 3038), Normandie Univ, CNRS, INSA Rouen, UNIROUEN, 76000, Rouen, France
| | - Noëlle Lascoux
- Laboratoire de Chimie UMR 5182, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon,CNRS, Université Lyon 1, 46, allée d'Italie, 69364, Lyon Cedex 07, France
| | - Patrice Baldeck
- Laboratoire de Chimie UMR 5182, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon,CNRS, Université Lyon 1, 46, allée d'Italie, 69364, Lyon Cedex 07, France
| | - Magalie Bénard
- PRIMACEN, Cell Imaging Platform of Normandy, Institute for Research and Innovation in Biomedicine (IRIB), Normandie Univ, Inserm, UNIROUEN, 76000, Rouen, France
| | - Thibault Gallavardin
- COBRA (UMR 6014 and FR 3038), Normandie Univ, CNRS, INSA Rouen, UNIROUEN, 76000, Rouen, France
| | - Ludovic Galas
- PRIMACEN, Cell Imaging Platform of Normandy, Institute for Research and Innovation in Biomedicine (IRIB), Normandie Univ, Inserm, UNIROUEN, 76000, Rouen, France
| | - Xavier Franck
- COBRA (UMR 6014 and FR 3038), Normandie Univ, CNRS, INSA Rouen, UNIROUEN, 76000, Rouen, France
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10
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Kang H, Torruellas C, Liu J, Kozlowski MC. Total Synthesis of Chaetoglobin A via Catalytic, Atroposelective Oxidative Phenol Coupling. Org Lett 2018; 20:5554-5558. [PMID: 30207731 DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.8b02183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The first total synthesis of chaetoglobin A (1), which features a chiral axis between two identical highly oxygenated bicyclic cores, was successfully completed in 12 steps from 2,6-dimethoxytoluene. Vanadium-catalyzed oxidative phenol coupling, as a key step, enabled generation of the axial chirality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Houng Kang
- Department of Chemistry, Roy and Diana Vagelos Laboratories , University of Pennsylvania , Philadelphia , Pennsylvania 19104 , United States
| | - Carilyn Torruellas
- U.S. Army Edgewood Chemical Biological Center , RDCB-DRC-P/Building E3400 , Aberdeen Proving Ground , Maryland 21010-5424 , United States
| | - Jinchu Liu
- Department of Process Research and Development , Merck Research Laboratories , Rahway , New Jersey 07065 , United States
| | - Marisa C Kozlowski
- Department of Chemistry, Roy and Diana Vagelos Laboratories , University of Pennsylvania , Philadelphia , Pennsylvania 19104 , United States
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11
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Moritz CP. Tubulin or Not Tubulin: Heading Toward Total Protein Staining as Loading Control in Western Blots. Proteomics 2018; 17. [PMID: 28941183 DOI: 10.1002/pmic.201600189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2017] [Revised: 09/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Western blotting is an analytical method widely used for detecting and (semi-)quantifying specific proteins in given samples. Western blots are continuously applied and developed by the protein community. This review article focuses on a significant, but not yet well-established, improvement concerning the internal loading control as a prerequisite to accurately quantifying Western blots. Currently, housekeeping proteins (HKPs) like actin, tubulin, or GAPDH are often used to check for equal loading or to compensate potential loading differences. However, this loading control has multiple drawbacks. Staining of the total protein on the blotting membrane has emerged as a better loading control. Total protein staining (TPS) represents the actual loading amount more accurately than HKPs due to minor technical and biological variation. Further, the broad dynamic range of TPS solves the issue of HKPs that commonly fail to show loading differences above small loading amounts of 0.5-10 μg. Although these and further significant advantages have been demonstrated over the past 10 years, only a small percentage of laboratories take advantage of it. The objective of this review article is to collect and compare information about TPS options and to invite users to reconsider their applied loading control. Nine benefits of TPS are discussed and seven different variants are critically evaluated by comparing technical details. Consequently, this review article offers an orientation in selecting the appropriate staining type. I conclude that TPS should be the preferred loading control in future Western blot approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian P Moritz
- Synaptopathies and Autoantibodies, Faculty of Medicine, University Jean Monnet, Saint-Étienne, France.,Institut NeuroMyoGène, Team Synaptopathies and Autoantibodies, Lyon/Saint-Étienne, France
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12
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Qarah AF, Schaeff MN, Klumpp DA. Electrophilic Carboxamidation of Ferrocenes with Isocyanates. J Org Chem 2017; 82:10623-10627. [PMID: 28862860 DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.7b01347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Ferrocenes undergo one-step carboxamidation by reaction with isocyanates in CF3SO3H solution. The chemistry is most efficient in excess superacid, and it has been accomplished with aryl and aliphatic isocyanates. In conversions with ferrocene carboxylic acids, isocyanates provide imides in good yields. A mechanism for this conversion is suggested involving carbamic acid anhydride formation and subsequent intramolecular reaction at the substituted cyclopentadienyl ring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmad F Qarah
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Northern Illinois University , DeKalb, Illinois 60115, United States
| | - Mark N Schaeff
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Northern Illinois University , DeKalb, Illinois 60115, United States
| | - Douglas A Klumpp
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Northern Illinois University , DeKalb, Illinois 60115, United States
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13
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Makrerougras M, Coffinier R, Oger S, Chevalier A, Sabot C, Franck X. Total Synthesis and Structural Revision of Chaetoviridins A. Org Lett 2017; 19:4146-4149. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.7b02053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mehdi Makrerougras
- Normandie Univ, CNRS, UNIROUEN, INSA Rouen, COBRA (UMR 6014 & FR 3038), 76000 Rouen, France
| | - Romain Coffinier
- Normandie Univ, CNRS, UNIROUEN, INSA Rouen, COBRA (UMR 6014 & FR 3038), 76000 Rouen, France
| | - Samuel Oger
- Normandie Univ, CNRS, UNIROUEN, INSA Rouen, COBRA (UMR 6014 & FR 3038), 76000 Rouen, France
| | - Arnaud Chevalier
- Normandie Univ, CNRS, UNIROUEN, INSA Rouen, COBRA (UMR 6014 & FR 3038), 76000 Rouen, France
| | - Cyrille Sabot
- Normandie Univ, CNRS, UNIROUEN, INSA Rouen, COBRA (UMR 6014 & FR 3038), 76000 Rouen, France
| | - Xavier Franck
- Normandie Univ, CNRS, UNIROUEN, INSA Rouen, COBRA (UMR 6014 & FR 3038), 76000 Rouen, France
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14
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Yang L, Hu Z, Luo J, Tang C, Zhang S, Ning W, Dong C, Huang J, Liu X, Zhou HB. Dual functional small molecule fluorescent probes for image-guided estrogen receptor-specific targeting coupled potent antiproliferative potency for breast cancer therapy. Bioorg Med Chem 2017; 25:3531-3539. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2017.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2017] [Revised: 04/21/2017] [Accepted: 05/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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15
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Diaz YJ, Page ZA, Knight AS, Treat NJ, Hemmer JR, Hawker CJ, Read de Alaniz J. A Versatile and Highly Selective Colorimetric Sensor for the Detection of Amines. Chemistry 2017; 23:3562-3566. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.201700368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2017] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Yvonne J. Diaz
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry University of California, Santa Barbara Santa Barbara CA 93106 USA
| | - Zachariah A. Page
- Materials Research Laboratory University of California Santa Barbara CA 93106 USA
| | - Abigail S. Knight
- Materials Research Laboratory University of California Santa Barbara CA 93106 USA
| | - Nicolas J. Treat
- Materials Research Laboratory University of California Santa Barbara CA 93106 USA
| | - James R. Hemmer
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry University of California, Santa Barbara Santa Barbara CA 93106 USA
| | - Craig J. Hawker
- Materials Research Laboratory University of California Santa Barbara CA 93106 USA
| | - Javier Read de Alaniz
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry University of California, Santa Barbara Santa Barbara CA 93106 USA
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16
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Duval R, Duplais C. Fluorescent natural products as probes and tracers in biology. Nat Prod Rep 2017; 34:161-193. [DOI: 10.1039/c6np00111d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Fluorescence is a remarkable property of many natural products in addition to their medicinal and biological value. Herein, we provide a review of these peculiar secondary metabolites to stimulate prospecting of them as original fluorescent tracers, endowed with unique photophysical properties and with applications in most fields of biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Romain Duval
- IRD
- UMR 216 IRD MERIT (Mère et Enfant face aux Infections Tropicales)
- Université Paris-Descartes
- 75006 Paris
- France
| | - Christophe Duplais
- CNRS
- UMR 8172 EcoFoG (Ecologie des Forêts de Guyane)
- AgroParisTech
- Cirad
- INRA
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17
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Karuso P, Loa Kum Cheung W, Peixoto PA, Boulangé A, Franck X. Epicocconone-Hemicyanine Hybrids: Near Infrared Fluorophores for Protein Staining and Cell Imaging. Chemistry 2016; 23:1820-1829. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.201604698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Peter Karuso
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences; Macquarie University; Sydney NSW 2109 Australia
| | - Wendy Loa Kum Cheung
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences; Macquarie University; Sydney NSW 2109 Australia
| | - Philippe A. Peixoto
- Normandie Univ.; CNRS, UNIROUEN, INSA Rouen, COBRA (UMR 6014 & FR 3038); 76000 Rouen France
- Present address: Univ. Bordeaux; ISM (CNRS-UMR 5255); 351 Cours de la Libération Talence 33405 Cedex France
| | - Agathe Boulangé
- Normandie Univ.; CNRS, UNIROUEN, INSA Rouen, COBRA (UMR 6014 & FR 3038); 76000 Rouen France
- Present address: AQUISTAIN; Domaine du Haut-Carré, Bâtiment C5; 351 Cours de la Libération 33400 Talence France
| | - Xavier Franck
- Normandie Univ.; CNRS, UNIROUEN, INSA Rouen, COBRA (UMR 6014 & FR 3038); 76000 Rouen France
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18
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Renault K, Jouanno LA, Lizzul-Jurse A, Renard PY, Sabot C. Fluorogenic Behaviour of the Hetero-Diels-Alder Ligation of 5-Alkoxyoxazoles with Maleimides and their Applications. Chemistry 2016; 22:18522-18531. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.201603617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kévin Renault
- Normandie University; CNRS, UNIROUEN, INSA Rouen; COBRA (UMR 6014); 76000 Rouen France
| | - Laurie-Anne Jouanno
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences; University of Ottawa; 10 Marie Curie Ottawa Ontario K1N 6N5 Canada
| | - Antoine Lizzul-Jurse
- Normandie University; CNRS, UNIROUEN, INSA Rouen; COBRA (UMR 6014); 76000 Rouen France
| | - Pierre-Yves Renard
- Normandie University; CNRS, UNIROUEN, INSA Rouen; COBRA (UMR 6014); 76000 Rouen France
| | - Cyrille Sabot
- Normandie University; CNRS, UNIROUEN, INSA Rouen; COBRA (UMR 6014); 76000 Rouen France
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19
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Abstract
The present review offers an overview of nonclassical (e.g., with no pre- or in situ activation of a carboxylic acid partner) approaches for the construction of amide bonds. The review aims to comprehensively discuss relevant work, which was mainly done in the field in the last 20 years. Organization of the data follows a subdivision according to substrate classes: catalytic direct formation of amides from carboxylic and amines ( section 2 ); the use of carboxylic acid surrogates ( section 3 ); and the use of amine surrogates ( section 4 ). The ligation strategies (NCL, Staudinger, KAHA, KATs, etc.) that could involve both carboxylic acid and amine surrogates are treated separately in section 5 .
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Affiliation(s)
- Renata Marcia de Figueiredo
- Institut Charles Gerhardt de Montpellier (ICGM), UMR 5253-CNRS-UM-ENSCM, Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Chimie , 8 rue de l'Ecole Normale, 34296 Montpellier Cedex 5, France
| | - Jean-Simon Suppo
- Institut Charles Gerhardt de Montpellier (ICGM), UMR 5253-CNRS-UM-ENSCM, Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Chimie , 8 rue de l'Ecole Normale, 34296 Montpellier Cedex 5, France
| | - Jean-Marc Campagne
- Institut Charles Gerhardt de Montpellier (ICGM), UMR 5253-CNRS-UM-ENSCM, Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Chimie , 8 rue de l'Ecole Normale, 34296 Montpellier Cedex 5, France
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20
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Beuzer P, La Clair JJ, Cang H. Color-Coded Super-Resolution Small-Molecule Imaging. Chembiochem 2016; 17:999-1003. [PMID: 26994590 PMCID: PMC5291120 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201600013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Although the development of super-resolution microscopy dates back to 1994, its applications have been primarily focused on visualizing cellular structures and targets, including proteins, DNA and sugars. We now report on a system that allows both monitoring of the localization of exogenous small molecules in live cells at low resolution and subsequent super-resolution imaging by using stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy (STORM) on fixed cells. This represents a powerful new tool to understand the dynamics of subcellular trafficking associated with the mode and mechanism of action of exogenous small molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paolo Beuzer
- Waitt Advanced Biophotonics Center, The Salk Institute for Biological Sciences, 10010 N Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
| | - James J La Clair
- Waitt Advanced Biophotonics Center, The Salk Institute for Biological Sciences, 10010 N Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA.
- Xenobe Research Institute, P. O. Box 3052, San Diego, CA, 92163-1052, USA.
| | - Hu Cang
- Waitt Advanced Biophotonics Center, The Salk Institute for Biological Sciences, 10010 N Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA.
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21
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Liu B, Pang Y, Bouhenni R, Duah E, Paruchuri S, McDonald L. A step toward simplified detection of serum albumin on SDS-PAGE using an environment-sensitive flavone sensor. Chem Commun (Camb) 2016; 51:11060-3. [PMID: 26068596 DOI: 10.1039/c5cc03516c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
In this study, we report a series of novel flavone-based sensors that exhibit a superior fluorescence response when interacting with serum albumin in real serum samples and in acrylamide gels. The detection limit of probe 4 for serum albumin solution is 0.09 μg mL(-1), and the detectable volume for monkey serum reaches as low as 0.03 μL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bin Liu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Akron, Akron, Ohio 44325, USA.
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22
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Durand T, Henry C, Bolien D, Harrowven DC, Bloodworth S, Franck X, Whitby RJ. Thermolysis of 1,3-dioxin-4-ones: fast generation of kinetic data using in-line analysis under flow. REACT CHEM ENG 2016. [DOI: 10.1039/c5re00007f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Rapid acquisition of kinetic data for thermolysis of 1,3-dioxin-4-ones is demonstrated with a commercial meso-scale flow reactor, using a step-change in flow rate or ‘push-out’ from the flow line.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Durand
- Chemistry, Faculty of Natural and Environmental Sciences
- University of Southampton
- Southampton
- UK
| | - Cyril Henry
- Chemistry, Faculty of Natural and Environmental Sciences
- University of Southampton
- Southampton
- UK
| | - David Bolien
- Chemistry, Faculty of Natural and Environmental Sciences
- University of Southampton
- Southampton
- UK
| | - David C. Harrowven
- Chemistry, Faculty of Natural and Environmental Sciences
- University of Southampton
- Southampton
- UK
| | - Sally Bloodworth
- Chemistry, Faculty of Natural and Environmental Sciences
- University of Southampton
- Southampton
- UK
| | - Xavier Franck
- Normandie Université
- COBRA, UMR 6014 & FR 3038
- Université de Rouen
- INSA Rouen
- CNRS
| | - Richard J. Whitby
- Chemistry, Faculty of Natural and Environmental Sciences
- University of Southampton
- Southampton
- UK
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23
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Quideau S, Pouységu L, Peixoto PA, Deffieux D. Phenol Dearomatization with Hypervalent Iodine Reagents. HYPERVALENT IODINE CHEMISTRY 2016; 373:25-74. [DOI: 10.1007/128_2015_665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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24
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Synthesis and antibacterial activities of cadiolides A, B and C and analogues. Bioorg Med Chem 2015; 23:3618-28. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2015.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2015] [Revised: 04/03/2015] [Accepted: 04/04/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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25
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Chatterjee S, Karuso P, Boulangé A, Franck X, Datta A. Excited State Dynamics of Brightly Fluorescent Second Generation Epicocconone Analogues. J Phys Chem B 2015; 119:6295-303. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.5b02190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Soumit Chatterjee
- Department of Chemistry & Biomolecular Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney 2109, Australia
| | - Peter Karuso
- Department of Chemistry & Biomolecular Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney 2109, Australia
| | - Agathe Boulangé
- Normandie Univ,
COBRA, UMR 6014 et FR 3038, CNRS, Univ Rouen, INSA Rouen, 1 rue Tesnières, 76821 Mont-Saint-Aignan, Cedex, France
| | - Xavier Franck
- Normandie Univ,
COBRA, UMR 6014 et FR 3038, CNRS, Univ Rouen, INSA Rouen, 1 rue Tesnières, 76821 Mont-Saint-Aignan, Cedex, France
| | - Anindya Datta
- Department
of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai 400076, India
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26
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Uyanik M, Suzuki D, Watanabe M, Tanaka H, Furukawa K, Ishihara K. High-performance Hypoiodite/Hydrogen Peroxide Catalytic System for the Oxylactonization of Aliphatic γ-Oxocarboxylic Acids. CHEM LETT 2015. [DOI: 10.1246/cl.141110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Hiroyasu Tanaka
- Mitsubishi Gas Chemical Co., Inc., Tokyo Research Laboratory
| | - Kikuo Furukawa
- Mitsubishi Gas Chemical Co., Inc., Tokyo Research Laboratory
| | - Kazuaki Ishihara
- Graduate School of Engineering, Nagoya University
- Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST), CREST, Nagoya University
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27
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