Nitrosyl derivatives of diiron(I) dithiolates mimic the structure and Lewis acidity of the [FeFe]-hydrogenase active site

Facile electrocatalytic proton reduction by a [Fe-Fe]-hydrogenase bio-inspired synthetic model bearing a terminal CN- ligand

An azadithiolate bridged CN- bound pentacarbonyl bis-iron complex, mimicking the active site of [Fe-Fe] H2ase is synthesized. The geometric and electronic structure of this complex is elucidated using a combination of EXAFS analysis, infrared and Mössbauer spectroscopy and DFT calculations. The electrochemical investigations show that complex 1 effectively reduces H+ to H2 between pH 0-3 at diffusion-controlled rates (1011 M-1 s-1) i.e. 108 s-1 at pH 3 with an overpotential of 140 mV. Electrochemical analysis and DFT calculations suggests that a CN- ligand increases the pKa of the cluster enabling hydrogen production from its Fe(i)-Fe(0) state at pHs much higher and overpotential much lower than its precursor bis-iron hexacarbonyl model which is active in its Fe(0)-Fe(0) state. The formation of a terminal Fe-H species, evidenced by spectroelectrochemistry in organic solvent, via a rate determining proton coupled electron transfer step and protonation of the adjacent azadithiolate, lowers the kinetic barrier leading to diffusion controlled rates of H2 evolution. The stereo-electronic factors enhance its catalytic rate by 3 order of magnitude relative to a bis-iron hexacarbonyl precursor at the same pH and potential.

[FeFe]-Hydrogenases: maturation and reactivity of enzymatic systems and overview of biomimetic models

[FeFe]-hydrogenases recieved increasing interest in the last decades. This review summarises important findings regarding their enzymatic reactivity as well as inorganic models applied as electro- and photochemical catalysts.

[FeFe]-Hydrogenase H-Cluster Mimics with Various -S(CH2)nS- Linker Lengths (n = 2-8): A Systematic Study

The effect of the nature of the dithiolato ligand on the physical and electrochemical properties of synthetic H-cluster mimics of the [FeFe]-hydrogenase is still of significant concern. In this report we describe the cyclization of various alkanedithiols to afford cyclic disulfide, tetrasulfide, and hexasulfide compounds. The latter compounds were used as proligands for the synthesis of a series of [FeFe]-hydrogenase H-cluster mimics having the general formulas [Fe₂(CO)₆{μ-S(CH₂)_nS}] (n = 4-8), [Fe₂(CO)₆{μ-S(CH₂)_nS}]₂ (n = 6-8), and [Fe₂(CO)₆{(μ-S(CH₂)_nS)₂}] (n = 6-8). The resulting complexes were characterized by ¹H and ¹³C{¹H} NMR and IR spectroscopic techniques, mass spectrometry, and elemental analysis as well as X-ray analysis. The purpose of this research was to study the influence of the systematic increase of n from 2 to 7 on the redox potentials of the models and the catalytic ability in the presence of acetic acid (AcOH) by applying cyclic voltammetry.

Hydrogenase Enzymes and Their Synthetic Models: The Role of Metal Hydrides

Hydrogenase enzymes efficiently process H2 and protons at organometallic FeFe, NiFe, or Fe active sites. Synthetic modeling of the many H2ase states has provided insight into H2ase structure and mechanism, as well as afforded catalysts for the H2 energy vector. Particularly important are hydride-bearing states, with synthetic hydride analogues now known for each hydrogenase class. These hydrides are typically prepared by protonation of low-valent cores. Examples of FeFe and NiFe hydrides derived from H2 have also been prepared. Such chemistry is more developed than mimicry of the redox-inactive monoFe enzyme, although functional models of the latter are now emerging. Advances in physical and theoretical characterization of H2ase enzymes and synthetic models have proven key to the study of hydrides in particular, and will guide modeling efforts toward more robust and active species optimized for practical applications.

Recent Advances in Multinuclear Metal Nitrosyl Complexes

The coordination chemistry of metal nitrosyls has expanded rapidly in the past decades due to major advances of nitric oxide and its metal compounds in biology. This review article highlights advances made in the area of multinuclear metal nitrosyl complexes, including Roussin's salts and their ester derivatives from 2003 to present. The review article focuses on isolated multinuclear metal nitrosyl complexes and is organized into different sections by the number of metal centers and bridging ligands.

Ligand effects on the electrochemical behavior of [Fe2(CO)5(L){μ-(SCH2)2(Ph)PO}] (L = PPh3, P(OEt)3) hydrogenase model complexes

In this paper we study the influence of substituting one CO ligand in [Fe₂(CO)₆{μ-(SCH₂)₂(Ph)PO}] (1) by better σ-donors (PPh₃(2) and P(OMe)₃(3)) in relation to the electrochemical behavior.

Terminal vs bridging hydrides of diiron dithiolates: protonation of Fe2(dithiolate)(CO)2(PMe3)4

This investigation examines the protonation of diiron dithiolates, exploiting the new family of exceptionally electron-rich complexes Fe(2)(xdt)(CO)(2)(PMe(3))(4), where xdt is edt (ethanedithiolate, 1), pdt (propanedithiolate, 2), and adt (2-aza-1,3-propanedithiolate, 3), prepared by the photochemical substitution of the corresponding hexacarbonyls. Compounds 1-3 oxidize near -950 mV vs Fc(+/0). Crystallographic analyses confirm that 1 and 2 adopt C(2)-symmetric structures (Fe-Fe = 2.616 and 2.625 Å, respectively). Low-temperature protonation of 1 afforded exclusively [μ-H1](+), establishing the non-intermediacy of the terminal hydride ([t-H1](+)). At higher temperatures, protonation afforded mainly [t-H1](+). The temperature dependence of the ratio [t-H1](+)/[μ-H1](+) indicates that the barriers for the two protonation pathways differ by ∼4 kcal/mol. Low-temperature (31)P{(1)H} NMR measurements indicate that the protonation of 2 proceeds by an intermediate, proposed to be the S-protonated dithiolate [Fe(2)(Hpdt)(CO)(2)(PMe(3))(4)](+) ([S-H2](+)). This intermediate converts to [t-H2](+) and [μ-H2](+) by first-order and second-order processes, respectively. DFT calculations support transient protonation at sulfur and the proposal that the S-protonated species (e.g., [S-H2](+)) rearranges to the terminal hydride intramolecularly via a low-energy pathway. Protonation of 3 affords exclusively terminal hydrides, regardless of the acid or conditions, to give [t-H3](+), which isomerizes to [t-H3'](+), wherein all PMe(3) ligands are basal.

Synthetic models for the active site of the [FeFe]-hydrogenase: catalytic proton reduction and the structure of the doubly protonated intermediate

This report compares biomimetic hydrogen evolution reaction catalysts with and without the amine cofactor (adt(NH)): Fe(2)(adt(NH))(CO)(2)(dppv)(2) (1(NH)) and Fe(2)(pdt)(CO)(2)(dppv)(2) (2) [(adt(NH))(2-) = HN(CH(2)S)(2)(2-), pdt(2-) = 1,3-(CH(2))(3)S(2)(2-), and dppv = cis-C(2)H(2)(PPh(2))(2)]. These compounds are spectroscopically, structurally, and stereodynamically very similar but exhibit very different catalytic properties. Protonation of 1(NH) and 2 gives three isomeric hydrides each, beginning with the kinetically favored terminal hydride, which converts sequentially to sym and unsym isomers of the bridging hydrides. In the case of 1(NH), the corresponding ammonium hydrides are also observed. In the case of the terminal amine hydride [t-H1(NH)]BF(4), the ammonium/amine hydride equilibrium is sensitive to counteranions and solvent. The species [t-H1(NH(2))](BF(4))(2) represents the first example of a crystallographically characterized terminal hydride produced by protonation. The NH---HFe distance of 1.88(7) Å indicates dihydrogen-bonding. The bridging hydrides [μ-H1(NH)](+) and [μ-H2](+) reduce near -1.8 V, about 150 mV more negative than the reductions of the terminal hydride [t-H1(NH)](+) and [t-H2](+) at -1.65 V. Reductions of the amine hydrides [t-H1(NH)](+) and [t-H1(NH(2))](2+) are irreversible. For the pdt analogue, the [t-H2](+/0) couple is unaffected by weak acids (pK(a)(MeCN) = 15.3) but exhibits catalysis with HBF(4)·Et(2)O, albeit with a turnover frequency (TOF) around 4 s(-1) and an overpotential greater than 1 V. The voltammetry of [t-H1(NH)](+) is strongly affected by relatively weak acids and proceeds at 5000 s(-1) with an overpotential of 0.7 V. The ammonium hydride [t-H1(NH(2))](2+) is a faster catalyst, with an estimated TOF of 58 000 s(-1) and an overpotential of 0.5 V.

Electron delocalization from the fullerene attachment to the diiron core within the active-site mimics of [FeFe]hydrogenase

Attachment of the redox-active C(60)(H)PPh(2) group modulates the electronic structure of the Fe(2) core in [(μ-bdt)Fe(2)(CO)(5)(C(60)(H)PPh(2))]. The neutral complex is characterized by X-ray crystallography, IR, NMR spectroscopy, and cyclic voltammetry. When it is reduced by one electron, the spectroscopic and density functional theory results indicate that the Fe(2) core is partially spin-populated. In the doubly reduced species, extensive electron communication occurs between the reduced fullerene unit and the Fe(2) centers as displayed in the spin-density plot. The results suggest that the [4Fe4S] cluster within the H cluster provides an essential role in terms of the electronic factor.

Reaction of Aryl Diazonium Salts and Diiron(I) Dithiolato Carbonyls: Evidence for Radical Intermediates

Treatment of Fe(2)(pdt)(CO)(4)(dppv) (1) with aryldiazonium salts affords the 34e(-) adducts [Fe(2)(pdt)(μ-N(2)Ar)(CO)(4)(dppv)](+) (pdt(2-) = 1,3-propanedithiolate, dppv = cis-C(2)H(2)(PPh(2))(2)). Under some conditions, the same reaction gave substantial amounts of [1](+), the product of electron-transfer. Consistent with the influence of electron transfer in the reactions of some electrophiles with Fe(I)Fe(I) dithiolates, the reaction of [Me(3)S(2)](+) and Fe(2)(pdt)(CO)(4)(dppbz) was found to give [Fe(2)(pdt)(CO)(4)(dppbz)](+) as well as Me(2)S and Me(2)S(2) (dppbz = 1,2-bis(diphenylphosphino)benzene).

Role of the azadithiolate cofactor in models for [FeFe]-hydrogenase: novel structures and catalytic implications

This paper summarizes studies on the redox behavior of synthetic models for the [FeFe]-hydrogenases, consisting of diiron dithiolato carbonyl complexes bearing the amine cofactor and its N-benzyl derivative. Of specific interest are the causes of the low reactivity of oxidized models toward H(2), which contrasts with the high activity of these enzymes for H(2) oxidation. The redox and acid-base properties of the model complexes [Fe(2)[(SCH(2))(2)NR](CO)(3)(dppv)(PMe(3))](+) ([2](+) for R = H and [2'](+) for R = CH(2)C(6)H(5), dppv = cis-1,2-bis(diphenylphosphino)ethylene)) indicate that addition of H(2) followed by deprotonation are (i) endothermic for the mixed valence (Fe(II)Fe(I)) state and (ii) exothermic for the diferrous (Fe(II)Fe(II)) state. The diferrous state is shown to be unstable with respect to coordination of the amine to Fe, a derivative of which was characterized crystallographically. The redox and acid-base properties for the mixed valence models differ strongly for those containing the amine cofactor versus those derived from propanedithiolate. Protonation of [2'](+) induces disproportionation to a 1:1 mixture of the ammonium [H2'](+) (Fe(I)Fe(I)) and the dication [2'](2+) (Fe(II)Fe(II)). This effect is consistent with substantial enhancement of the basicity of the amine in the Fe(I)Fe(I) state vs the Fe(II)Fe(I) state. The Fe(I)Fe(I) ammonium compounds are rapid and efficient H-atom donors toward the nitroxyl compound TEMPO. The atom transfer is proposed to proceed via the hydride. Collectively, the results suggest that proton-coupled electron-transfer pathways should be considered for H(2) activation by the [FeFe]-hydrogenases.

Artificial hydrogenases

Decades of biophysical study on the hydrogenase (H(2)ase) enzymes have yielded sufficient information to guide the synthesis of analogs of their active sites. Three families of enzymes serve as inspiration for this work: the [FeFe]-H(2)ases, [NiFe]-H(2)ases, and [Fe]-H(2)ases, all of which feature iron centers bound to both CO and thiolate. Artificial H(2)ases affect the oxidation of H(2) and the reverse reaction, the reduction of protons. These reactions occur via the intermediacy of metal hydrides. The inclusion of amine bases within the catalysts is an important design feature that is emulated in related bioinspired catalysts. Continuing challenges are the low reactivity of H(2) toward biomimetic H(2)ases.

Isomerization of the hydride complexes [HFe2(SR)2(PR3)(x)(CO)(6-x)]+ (x = 2, 3, 4) relevant to the active site models for the [FeFe]-hydrogenases

The stepwise formation of bridging (mu-) hydrides of diiron dithiolates is discussed with attention on the pathway for protonation and subsequent isomerizations. Our evidence is consistent with protonations occurring at a single Fe center, followed by isomerization to a series of mu-hydrides. Protonation of Fe(2)(edt)(CO)(4)(dppv) (1) gave a single mu-hydride with dppv spanning apical and basal sites, which isomerized at higher temperatures to place the dppv into a dibasal position. Protonation of Fe(2)(pdt)(CO)(4)(dppv) (2) followed an isomerization pathway similar to that for [1H](+), except that a pair of isomeric terminal hydrides were observed initially, resulting from protonation at the Fe(CO)(3) or Fe(CO)(dppv) site. The first observable product from low temperature protonation of the tris-phosphine Fe(2)(edt)(CO)(3)(PMe(3))(dppv) (3) was a single mu-hydride wherein PMe(3) is apical and the dppv ligand spans apical and basal sites. Upon warming, this isomer converted fully but in a stepwise manner to a mixture of three other isomeric hydrides. Protonation of Fe(2)(pdt)(CO)(3)(PMe(3))(dppv) (4) proceeded similarly to the edt analogue 3, however a terminal hydride was observed, albeit only briefly and at very low temperatures (-90 degrees C). Low-temperature protonation of the bis-chelates Fe(2)(xdt)(CO)(2)(dppv)(2) produced exclusively the terminal hydrides [HFe(2)(xdt)(mu-CO)(CO)(dppv)(2)](+) (xdt = edt and pdt), which subsequently isomerized to a pair of mu-hydrides. At room temperature these (dppv)(2) derivatives convert to an equilibrium of two isomers, one C(2)-symmetric and the other C(s)-symmetric. The stability of the terminal hydrides correlates with the (C(2)-isomer)/(C(s)-isomer) equilibrium ratio, which reflects the size of the dithiolate. The isomerization was found to be unaffected by the presence of excess acid, by solvent polarity, and the presence of D(2)O. This isomerization mechanism is proposed to be intramolecular, involving a 120 degrees rotation of the HFeL(3) subunit to an unobserved terminal basal hydride as the rate-determining step. The observed stability of the hydrides was supported by DFT calculations, which also highlight the instability of the basal terminal hydrides. Isomerization of the mu-hydride isomers occurs on alternating FeL(3) via 120 degree rotations without generating D(2)O-exchangeable intermediates.

Effect of Lewis acid on the structure of a diiron dithiolate complex based on the active site of [FeFe]-hydrogenase assessed by density functional theory

The effect of Lewis acid on the structure and H2 productivity of a diiron dithiolate complex was investigated by using density functional theory (DFT) calculations. When a model molecule of [(CH3SH)(CO)2Fe(p)(mu-SCH2NHCH2S)Fe(d)(CO)3] was geometrically optimized, two isomers were found: one is the unrotated structure (1) with no ligand between two Fe atoms and the other is the rotated structure (1*) with one CO ligand between two Fe atoms. The energy of 1* was higher than 1 by 6.4 kcal/mol in a vacuum. DFT calculations also revealed that all Lewis acids bound to the rotated structure more strongly than to the unrotated structure, leading to the stabilization of the rotated structure. In particular, when AlCl3 is used, the rotated structure (1*/AlCl3) is more stable than the unrotated one (1/AlCl3) by 1.2 kcal/mol in a vacuum. The stabilization of the rotated structure arises from both the stronger basicity of the mu-CO ligand than the axial CO ligand and the increase of the bond strength between the mu-CO ligand and Fe(p) atom upon binding of Lewis acid to 1*. Calculation of energy barriers during electrocatalytic H2 production revealed that 1*/AlCl3 could efficiently produce H2via a chemical-electrochemical-chemical-electrochemical mechanism. The analysis of the energy level of the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital showed that 1*/AlCl3 may produce H2 at significantly lower reduction potential as compared with 1*. It is also found that the catalytic activity decreases with increasing polarity of the medium.

Small molecule mimics of hydrogenases: hydrides and redox

This tutorial review is aimed at chemical scientists interested in understanding and exploiting the remarkable catalytic behavior of the hydrogenases. The key structural features are analyzed for the active sites of the two most important hydrogenases. Reactivity is emphasized, focusing on mechanism and catalysis. Through this analysis, gaps are identified in the synthesis of functional replicas of these fascinating and potentially useful enzymes.

New nitrosyl derivatives of diiron dithiolates related to the active site of the [FeFe]-hydrogenases

Nitrosyl derivatives of diiron dithiolato carbonyls have been prepared starting from the precursor Fe(2)(S(2)C(n)H(2n))(dppv)(CO)(4) (dppv = cis-1,2-bis(diphenylphosphinoethylene). These studies expand the range of substituted diiron(I) dithiolato carbonyl complexes. From [Fe(2)(S(2)C(2)H(4))(CO)(3)(dppv)(NO)]BF(4) ([1(CO)(3)]BF(4)), the following compounds were prepared: [1(CO)(2)(PMe(3))]BF(4), [1(CO)(dppv)]BF(4), NEt(4)[1(CO)(CN)(2)], and 1(CO)(CN)(PMe(3)). Some of these substitution reactions occur via the addition of 2 equiv of the nucleophile followed by the dissociation of one nucleophile and decarbonylation. Such a double adduct was characterized crystallographically in the case of [Fe(2)(S(2)C(2)H(4))(CO)(3)(dppv)(NO)(PMe(3))(2)]BF(4). This result shows that the addition of two ligands causes scission of the Fe-Fe bond and one Fe-S bond. When cyanide is the nucleophile, nitrosyl migrates away from the Fe(dppv) site, yielding a Fe(CN)(2)(NO) derivative. Compounds [1(CO)(3)]BF(4), [1(CO)(2)(PMe(3))]BF(4), and [1(CO)(dppv)]BF(4) were also prepared by the addition of NO(+) to the di-, tri-, and tetrasubstituted precursors. In these cases, the NO(+) appears to form an initial 36e(-) adduct containing terminal Fe-NO, followed by decarbonylation. Several complexes were prepared by the addition of NO to the mixed-valence Fe(I)Fe(II) derivatives. The diiron nitrosyl complexes reduce at mild potentials and in certain cases form weak adducts with CO. IR and EPR spectra of 1(CO)(dppv), generated by low-temperature reduction of [1(CO)(dppv)]BF(4) with Co(C(5)Me(5))(2), indicates that the SOMO is located on the FeNO subunit.