Surface and Bulk Aspects of Mixed Oxide Catalytic Nanoparticles: Oxidation and Dehydration of CH3OH by Polyoxometallates

A monolayer crystalline covalent network of polyoxometalate clusters

Monolayer two-dimensional (2D) materials are of great interest because of their unique electronic structures, noticeable in-plane confinement effect, and exceptional catalytic properties. Here, we prepared 2D covalent networks of polyoxometalate clusters (CN-POM) featuring monolayer crystalline molecular sheets, formed by the covalent connection between tetragonally arranged POM clusters. The CN-POM shows a superior catalytic efficiency in the oxidation of benzyl alcohol, and the conversion rate is five times higher than that of the POM cluster units. Theoretical calculations show that in-plane electron delocalization of CN-POM contributes to easier electron transfer and increases catalytic efficiency. Moreover, the conductivity of the covalently interconnected molecular sheets was 46 times greater than that of individual POM clusters. The preparation of monolayer covalent network of POM clusters provides a strategy to synthesize advanced cluster-based 2D materials and a precise molecular model to investigate the electronic structure of crystalline covalent networks.

Enhanced Water Resistance and Catalytic Performance of Ru/TiO2 by Regulating Brønsted Acid and Oxygen Vacancy for the Oxidative Removal of 1,2-Dichloroethane and Toluene

The compositions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) under actual industrial conditions are often complex; especially, the interaction of intermediate products easily leads to more toxic emissions that are harmful to the atmospheric environment and human health. Herein, we report a comparative investigation on 1,2-dichloroethane (1,2-DCE) and (1,2-DCE + toluene) oxidation over the Ru/TiO₂, phosphotungstic acid (HPW)-modified Ru/TiO₂, and oxygen vacancy-rich Ru/TiO_x catalysts. The doping of HPW successfully introduced the 1,2-DCE adsorption sites to promote its oxidation and exhibited outstanding water resistance. For the mixed VOCs, Ru/HPW-TiO₂ promoted the preferential and superfluous adsorption of toluene and resulted in the inhibition of 1,2-DCE degradation. Therefore, HPW modification is a successful strategy in catalytic 1,2-DCE oxidation, but Brønsted acid sites tend to adsorb toluene in the mixed VOC oxidation. The Ru/TiO_x catalyst exhibited excellent activity and stability in the oxidation of mixed VOCs and could inhibit the generation of byproducts and Cl₂ compared with the Ru/HPW-TiO₂ catalyst. Compared with the Brønsted acid modification, the oxygen vacancy-rich catalysts are significantly suitable for the oxidation of multicomponent VOCs.

Effects of support and reaction pressure for the synthesis of dimethyl ether over heteropolyacid catalysts

Dimethyl ether (DME) is an advanced second-generation biofuel produced via methanol dehydration over acid catalysts such as γ-Al₂O₃, at temperatures above 240 °C and pressures above 10 bar. Heteropolyacids such as tungstosilicic acid (HSiW) are Brønsted acid catalysts with higher DME production rates than γ-Al₂O₃, especially at low temperatures (140–180 °C). In this work, we show that the performance of supported HSiW for the production of DME is strongly affected by the nature of the support. TiO₂ and SiO₂ supported HSiW display the highest DME production rates of ca. 50 mmol_DME/h/g_HSiW. Characterization of acid sites via ¹H-NMR, NH₃-isotherms and NH₃-adsrobed DRIFT reveal that HSiW/X have Brønsted acid sites, HSiW/TiO₂ showing more and stronger sites, being the most active catalyst. Methanol production increases with T until 200 °C where a rapid decay in methanol conversion is observed. This effect is not irreversible, and methanol conversion increases to ca. 90% by increasing reaction pressure to 10 bar, with DME being the only product detected at all reaction conditions studied in this work. The loss of catalytic activity with the increasing temperature and its increasing with reaction pressure accounts to the degree of contribution of the pseudo-liquid catalysis under the reaction conditions studied.

Construction of a Z-Scheme Dictated WO3-X /Ag/ZnCr LDH Synergistically Visible Light-Induced Photocatalyst towards Tetracycline Degradation and H2 Evolution

Herein, we have designed nonstoichiometric WO₃, coupled with ZnCr layered double hydroxide (LDH) nanosheeet through Ag nanoparticle as the solid-state electron mediator to form WO_3-X /Ag/ZnCr LDH Z-scheme photocatalyst. The presence of oxygen defect levels in as-synthesized materials was confirmed by Raman, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and photoluminescence (PL) analyses. The photocatalytic performance of the catalysts was investigated by the tetracycline degradation and H₂ energy production under visible light irradiation. The WO_3-X /Ag/ZnCr LDH ternary heterostructure exhibits superior activity toward tetracycline degradation and hydrogen evolution. The excellent photocatalytic performance of the catalyst was attributed to the synergistic effects among three species (WO_3-X , Ag, and ZnCr LDH) and the enhanced separation efficiency of photoinduced charge carriers through the Z-scheme WO_3-X /Ag/ZnCr LDH system. In addition, the created oxygen deficiency on WO_3-X could improve the photocatalytic behavior of ZnCr LDH in heterostructure by delaying the recombination efficiency of photoexcited electron-hole pairs. Furthermore, the higher affinity of tetracycline at the oxygen defect levels of the photocatalyst supports the high rate of tetracycline degradation. The enhanced photocatlytic activity of the catalysts was further supported by PL spectra and photoelectrochemical studies (electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and linear sweep voltammetry (LSV) plot). The present research opens up a new strategy for designing highly efficient visible light-induced Z-scheme-based photocatalysts with high population of active sites for energy and environmental applications in a sustainable manner.

Heteropolyacid Salt Catalysts for Methanol Conversion to Hydrocarbons and Dimethyl Ether: Effect of Reaction Temperature

Phosphotungstic and silicotungstic acid salt catalysts (CuPW, CuSiW, FePW, FeSiW) were synthesized by substitution of protons with ferric and copper ions through a simple replacement reaction. The structure and thermal stability were characterized by IR, XRD and TG, and the salts showed a keggin structure and a thermal tolerance near 450 °C. Temperature programmed reactions indicated that the four catalysts showed similar trends in the change of methanol conversion, DME selectivity, and light olefins selectivity at 100–400 °C. Copper salt catalysts showed a 100% DME selectivity at temperatures ranging from 100–250 °C, while FeSiW and FePW catalysts had a 100% DME selectivity near 250 °C. Moreover, the heteropolyacid salt catalysts also produced a certain number of light olefins at the temperature ranging from 250–350 °C, and the CuSiW catalyst exhibited the highest ethylene and propylene selectivity of 44%. In the stability test evaluated at 200 °C, the catalysts showed different tendencies during the induction period and the same trends during the reduction period for the methanol conversion to DME, due to the differences in the strengths of the strong acid sites. Finally, the silicotungstic acid salt catalysts showed the longest lifetime of 120 h, much longer than the heteropolyacids. This approach provides an effective way to synthesize hydrocarbons through methanol, especially DME, at different temperatures using one catalyst.

Computational study on epoxidation of propylene by dioxygen using the silanol-functionalized polyoxometalate-supported osmium oxide catalyst

The silanol-functionalized POM-supported single-site Os oxide catalyst has been theoretically considered for epoxidation of propylene in the presence of dioxygen based on density functional theory calculations.

Highly Selective Oxidation of Ethyl Lactate to Ethyl Pyruvate Catalyzed by Mesoporous Vanadia-Titania

The direct oxidative dehydrogenation of lactates with molecular oxygen is a “greener” alternative for producing pyruvates. Here we report a one-pot synthesis of mesoporous vanadia–titania (VTN), acting as highly efficient and recyclable catalysts for the conversion of ethyl lactate to ethyl pyruvate. These VTN materials feature high surface areas, large pore volumes, and high densities of isolated vanadium species, which can expose the active sites and facilitate the mass transport. In comparison to homogeneous vanadium complexes and VO_x/TiO₂ prepared by impregnation, the meso-VTN catalysts showed superior activity, selectivity, and stability in the aerobic oxidation of ethyl lactate to ethyl pyruvate. We also studied the effect of various vanadium precursors, which revealed that the vanadium-induced phase transition of meso-VTN from anatase to rutile depends strongly on the vanadium precursor. NH₄VO₃ was found to be the optimal vanadium precursor, forming more monomeric vanadium species. V⁴⁺ as the major valence state was incorporated into the lattice of the NH₄VO₃-derived VTN material, yielding more V⁴⁺–O–Ti bonds in the anatase-dominant structure. In situ DRIFT spectroscopy and density functional theory calculations show that V⁴⁺–O–Ti bonds are responsible for the dissociation of ethyl lactate over VTN catalysts and for further activation of the deprotonation of β-hydrogen. Molecular oxygen can replenish the surface oxygen to regenerate the V⁴⁺–O–Ti bonds.

Oxygen vacancy regulation on tungsten oxides with specific exposed facets for enhanced visible-light-driven photocatalytic oxidation

Introduced oxygen vacancy on WO₃ with specific exposed facets was prepared through facile solvothermal treatment and different cooling methods. We demonstrated that the density of oxygen defects could be regulated by different cooling methods and speculated that oxygen vacancy with appropriate concentration range could promote photocatalytic activity through suppressing the recombination of photo-induced carriers. The specific exposed facets with higher oxidation efficiency were prepared by solvothermal reaction. WO₃-A treated by air cooling exhibits the best photocatalytic oxygen evolution rate at 500 μmol g^-1 h^-1 using AgNO₃ as sacrifice agent under visible light (λ > 400 nm) without any co-catalysts, which is about 2 times higher than WO₃-N without oxygen defects. This strategy, using different cooling methods to regulate oxygen vacancy concentration on tungsten oxides, could contribute to the design of other high efficiency photocatalysts.

Raman monitoring of a catalytic system at work: Influence of the reactant on the sensitivity to laser-induced heating

Characterizing catalysts under working conditions is crucial to understand and to optimize their behavior and performance. However, when Raman spectroscopy is used, attention has to be paid to laser-induced artefacts. While laser irradiation is often claimed to lead to a temperature gradient between the integral catalyst bed and the sampling point, neither the circumstances when such effect appears, nor if it systematically occurs or not, are really explored in details. The present paper shows that the sensitivity of a catalyst to laser-induced heating largely depends on the gas composition under which the analysis is done, in particular that it depends whether the catalyst has adsorbed reactant molecules or not. These aspects are here addressed via the Raman in situ exploration of H₃PW₁₂O₄₀. This heteropolyacid is a widely used acid catalyst due to its very high Brönsted acidity, approaching the superacid region. In particular, we have investigated the impact of laser irradiation in the Raman monitoring of solid H₃PW₁₂O₄₀ at work under a flow of methanol in nitrogen at 50°C. When 1 single spectrum of H₃PW₁₂O₄₀ was measured after 3h of exposure to methanol, the characteristic CH vibration bands of adsorbed methanol appeared. However, when spectra were measured continuously throughout the experiment, the same CH vibration bands were observed only during the first hour, then they disappeared and the characteristic bands of polyaromatic molecules appeared. Under continuous laser irradiation, adsorbed methanol was thus converted into polyaromatic coke as resulting from a laser-induced heating. However, the spectra collected under pure nitrogen show that the laser does not heat the catalyst in the absence of methanol. UV-Vis revealed the reason of the laser-induced heating in the presence of methanol, and the subsequent formation of coke. Actually the catalyst gets reduced by the adsorbed methanol, what darkens the catalyst bed. Such a darkening renders the catalyst sensitive to laser-induced heating, which in turn leads to the formation of coke. Under continuous laser irradiation, methanol thus auto-initiated its own catalytic conversion, finally leading to the deposition of coke. Such artefact must be avoided if one wants to study the true behavior of the catalyst at work. This paper shows that, for reducible samples analyzed in the presence of reductive molecules, this is only possible by shining the laser intermittently and not continuously. More generally, it actually shows that the adequate way to irradiate a catalyst (continuous vs intermittent) in an in situ/operando Raman analysis depends on the gas flow composition.

TiO2-supported heteropoly acid catalysts for dehydration of methanol to dimethyl ether: relevance of dispersion and support interaction

TiO₂-supported heteropoly acids are very active catalysts for DME production from methanol. Due to the interaction with the support, the most active catalysts are obtained when a monolayer of HPA is deposited on the support.

Kinetic study on the Cs(x)H(₃-x)PW₁₂O₄₀/Fe-SiO₂ nanocatalyst for biodiesel production

The kinetic of the transesterification reaction over the Cs(x)H(₃-x)PW₁₂O₄₀/Fe-SiO₂ catalyst prepared using sol-gel and impregnation procedures was investigated in different operational conditions. Experimental conditions were varied as follows: reaction temperature 323-333 K, methanol/oil molar ratio = 12/1, and the reaction time 0-240 min. The H₃PW₁₂O₄₀ heteropolyacid has recently attracted significant attention due to its potential for application in the production of biodiesel, in either homogeneous or heterogeneous catalytic conditions. Although fatty acids esterification reaction has been known for some time, data is still scarce regarding kinetic and thermodynamic parameters, especially when catalyzed by nonconventional compounds such as H₃PW₁₂O₄₀. Herein, a kinetic study utilizing Gc-Mas in situ allows for evaluating the effects of operation conditions on reaction rate and determining the activation energy along with thermodynamic constants including ΔG, ΔS, and ΔH. It indicated that the Cs(x)H(₃-x)PW₁₂O₄₀/Fe-SiO₂ magnetic nanocatalyst can be easily recycled with a little loss by magnetic field and can maintain higher catalytic activity and higher recovery even after being used 5 times. Characterization of catalyst was carried out by using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform-infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), N₂ adsorption-desorption measurements methods, thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA), and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC).

Computational insight into the initial steps of the Mars-van Krevelen mechanism: electron transfer and surface defects in the reduction of polyoxometalates

Metal oxides as a rule oxidize and oxygenate substrates via the Mars-van Krevelen mechanism. A well-defined α-Keggin polyoxometalate, H(5)PV(2)Mo(10)O(40), can be viewed as an analogue of discrete structure that reacts via the Mars-van Krevelen mechanism both in solution and in the gas phase. Guided by previous experimental observations, we have studied the key intermediates on the reaction pathways of its reduction by various compounds using high-level DFT calculations. These redox reactions of polyoxometalates require protons, and thus such complexes were explicitly considered. First, the energetics of outer-sphere proton and electron transfer as well as coupled proton and electron transfer were calculated for seven substrates. This was followed by identification of possible key intermediates on the subsequent reaction pathways that feature displacement of the metal atom from the Keggin structure and coordinatively unsaturated sites on the H(5)PV(2)Mo(10)O(40) surface. Such metal defects are favored at vanadium sites. For strong reducing agents the initial outer-sphere electron transfer, alone or possibly coupled with proton transfer, facilitates formation of metal defects. Subsequent coordination allows for formation of reactive ensembles on the catalyst surface, for which the selective oxygen-transfer step becomes feasible. Weak reducing agents do not facilitate defect formation by outer-sphere electron and/or proton transfers, and thus formation of metal defect structures prior to the substrate activation is suggested as an initial step. Calculated geometries and energies of metal defect structures support experimentally observed intermediates and demonstrate the complex nature of the Mars-van Krevelen mechanism.

Preparation of biodiesel from rice bran fatty acids catalyzed by heterogeneous cesium-exchanged 12-tungstophosphoric acids

Biodiesel synthesis from rice bran fatty acids (RBFA) was carried out using cesium exchanged 12-tungstophosphoric acid (TPA) catalysts. The physico-chemical properties of the catalysts were derived from X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), temperature programmed desorption (TPD) of NH(3) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The characterization techniques revealed that the Keggin structure of TPA remained intact as Cs replaced protons. The partial exchange of Cs for protons resulted in an increase in acidity and the catalysts with one Cs(+) (Cs(1)H(2)PW(12)O(40)) showed highest acidity. Under optimized conditions about 92% conversion of RBFA was obtained. The catalyst was reused for five times and retained of its original activity. Pseudo-first order model was applied to correlate the experimental kinetic data. Modified tungstophosphoric acids are efficient solid acid catalysts for the synthesis of biodiesel from the oils containing high FFA.