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Munjanja BK, Nomngongo PN, Mketo N. Organochlorine pesticides in vegetable oils: An overview of occurrence, toxicity, and chromatographic determination in the past twenty-two years (2000-2022). Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2023:1-17. [PMID: 37335094 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2023.2222010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/21/2023]
Abstract
Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) are used globally to control pests in the food industry. However, some have been banned due to their toxicity. Although they have been banned, OCPs are still discharged into the environment and persist for long periods of time. Therefore, this review focused on the occurrence, toxicity, and chromatographic determination of OCPs in vegetable oils over the last 22 years (2000-2022) (111 references).Literature search shows that OCPs kill pests by destroying endocrine, teratogenic, neuroendocrine, immune, and reproductive systems. However, only five studies investigated the fate of OCPs in vegetable oils and the outcome revealed that some of the steps involved during oil processing introduce more OCPs. Moreover, direct chromatographic determination of OCPs was mostly performed using online LC-GC methods fitted with oven transfer adsorption desorption interface. While indirect chromatographic determination was favored by QuEChERS extraction technique, gas chromatography frequently coupled to electron capture detection (ECD), gas chromatography in selective ion monitoring mode (SIM), and gas chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS) were the most common techniques used for detection. However, the greatest challenge still faced by analytical chemists is to obtain clean extracts with acceptable extraction recoveries (70-120%). Hence, more research is still required to develop greener and selective extraction methods toward OCPs, thus improving extraction recoveries. Moreover, advanced techniques like gas chromatography high resolution mass spectrometry (GC-HRMS) must also be explored. OCPs prevalence in vegetable oils varied greatly in various countries, and concentrations of up to 1500 µg/kg were reported. Additionally, the percentage of positive samples ranged from 1.1 to 97.5% for endosulfan sulfate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Basil K Munjanja
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science, Engineering and Technology, Florida Science Campus, University of South Africa, Roodepoort, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Philiswa N Nomngongo
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Nomvano Mketo
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science, Engineering and Technology, Florida Science Campus, University of South Africa, Roodepoort, Johannesburg, South Africa
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Nestola M, Schmidt TC. Fully automated determination of the sterol composition and total content in edible oils and fats by online liquid chromatography–gas chromatography–flame ionization detection. J Chromatogr A 2016; 1463:136-43. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2016.08.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2016] [Revised: 08/07/2016] [Accepted: 08/08/2016] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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3
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Farajzadeh MA, Feriduni B, Mogaddam MRA. Determination of triazole pesticide residues in edible oils using air-assisted liquid-liquid microextraction followed by gas chromatography with flame ionization detection. J Sep Sci 2015; 38:1002-9. [DOI: 10.1002/jssc.201400818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2014] [Revised: 11/10/2014] [Accepted: 12/25/2014] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mir Ali Farajzadeh
- Department of Analytical Chemistry; Faculty of Chemistry; University of Tabriz; Tabriz Iran
| | - Behruz Feriduni
- Department of Analytical Chemistry; Faculty of Chemistry; University of Tabriz; Tabriz Iran
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Aragón Á, Toledano RM, Gea S, Cortés JM, Vázquez AM, Villén J. Large volume injection in gas chromatography using the through oven transfer adsorption desorption interface operating under vacuum. Talanta 2014; 123:39-44. [PMID: 24725862 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2014.01.064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2013] [Revised: 01/24/2014] [Accepted: 01/29/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The present work describes a modification of the Through Oven Transfer Adsorption Desorption (TOTAD) interface, consisting of coupling a vacuum system to reduce the consumption of the helium needed to totally remove the eluent for large volume injection (LVI) in gas chromatography (GC). Two different retention materials in the liner of the TOTAD interface were evaluated: Tenax TA, which was seen to be unsuitable for working under vacuum conditions, and polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), which provided satisfactory repeatability as well as a good sensitivity. No variability was observed in the retention times in either case. Solutions containing organophosphorous pesticides in two different solvents, a polar (methanol/water) and a non-polar (hexane) solvent, were used to evaluate the modification. The vacuum system coupled to the TOTAD interface allowed up to 90% helium to be saved without affecting the performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Álvaro Aragón
- Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario s/n, 02071 Albacete, Spain
| | - Rosa M Toledano
- Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario s/n, 02071 Albacete, Spain
| | - Sara Gea
- Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario s/n, 02071 Albacete, Spain
| | - José M Cortés
- Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario s/n, 02071 Albacete, Spain.
| | - Ana M Vázquez
- Facultad de Educación, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario s/n, 02071 Albacete, Spain
| | - Jesús Villén
- Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario s/n, 02071 Albacete, Spain
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5
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Purcaro G, Moret S, Conte L. Sample pre-fractionation of environmental and food samples using LC-GC multidimensional techniques. Trends Analyt Chem 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2012.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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6
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Hyphenated liquid chromatography–gas chromatography technique: Recent evolution and applications. J Chromatogr A 2012; 1255:100-11. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2012.02.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2011] [Revised: 02/06/2012] [Accepted: 02/07/2012] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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7
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Su R, Xu X, Wang X, Li D, Li X, Zhang H, Yu A. Determination of organophosphorus pesticides in peanut oil by dispersive solid phase extraction gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2011; 879:3423-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2011.09.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2011] [Revised: 08/26/2011] [Accepted: 09/04/2011] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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8
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Aragón Á, Cortés JM, Toledano RM, Villén J, Vázquez A. Analysis of wax esters in edible oils by automated on-line coupling liquid chromatography–gas chromatography using the through oven transfer adsorption desorption (TOTAD) interface. J Chromatogr A 2011; 1218:4960-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2010.12.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2010] [Revised: 12/02/2010] [Accepted: 12/11/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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9
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TANG F, NI Y, ZHANG H, CHEN J. Applications of large-volume injection for environmental analysis. Se Pu 2010; 28:442-8. [DOI: 10.3724/sp.j.1123.2010.00442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
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10
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Toledano RM, Cortés JM, Andini JC, Villén J, Vázquez A. Large volume injection of water in gas chromatography–mass spectrometry using the Through Oven Transfer Adsorption Desorption interface: Application to multiresidue analysis of pesticides. J Chromatogr A 2010; 1217:4738-42. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2010.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2010] [Revised: 04/29/2010] [Accepted: 05/04/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Ziemer W, Wortberg M, Eichberger C, Gerstel J, Kerl W. Direct aqueous injection with backflush thermal desorption for wastewater monitoring by online GC-MS. Anal Bioanal Chem 2010; 397:1315-24. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-010-3644-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2010] [Revised: 03/03/2010] [Accepted: 03/08/2010] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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12
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Multidimensional chromatography in food analysis. J Chromatogr A 2009; 1216:7110-29. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2009.08.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2009] [Revised: 08/06/2009] [Accepted: 08/10/2009] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
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13
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Pesticide residue analysis by RPLC–GC in lycopene and other carotenoids obtained from tomatoes by supercritical fluid extraction. Food Chem 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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14
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Use of absorbent materials in on-line coupled reversed-phase liquid chromatography–gas chromatography via the through oven transfer adsorption desorption interface. J Chromatogr A 2008; 1211:99-103. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2008.09.075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2008] [Revised: 09/21/2008] [Accepted: 09/23/2008] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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15
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Hoh E, Mastovska K. Large volume injection techniques in capillary gas chromatography. J Chromatogr A 2008; 1186:2-15. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2007.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2007] [Revised: 11/28/2007] [Accepted: 12/03/2007] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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16
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Díaz-Plaza EM, Cortés JM, Vázquez A, Villén J. Automated determination of pesticide residues in olive oil by on-line reversed-phase liquid chromatography–gas chromatography using the through oven transfer adsorption desorption interface with electron-capture and nitrogen–phosphorus detectors operating simultaneously. J Chromatogr A 2007; 1174:145-50. [PMID: 17643444 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2007.06.073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2007] [Revised: 06/28/2007] [Accepted: 06/28/2007] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
A rapid method for the multiresidue analysis of pesticides in olive oil is presented. Pesticides are analyzed by on-line coupling reversed-phase liquid chromatography-gas chromatography using the through oven transfer adsorption desorption (TOTAD) interface with subsequent simultaneous electron-capture and nitrogen-phosphorus detection by post-column splitter. An autosampler is employed and the olive oil is simply filtered before the chromatographic analysis. Organophosphorus, organochlorine and triazine pesticides are determined in one run. The limits of detection are below the required maximum residue levels and calibration curves are linear in the range tested. Repeatabilities (intra-day and inter-days) are good. The method was satisfactory applied to the routine analysis of numerous olive oil samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva M Díaz-Plaza
- Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario s/n, 02071 Albacete, Spain
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García-Reyes JF, Ferrer C, Gómez-Ramos MJ, Fernández-Alba AR, García-Reyes JF, Molina-Díaz A. Determination of pesticide residues in olive oil and olives. Trends Analyt Chem 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2007.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Guardia-Rubio M, Marchal-López RM, Ayora-Cañada MJ, Ruiz-Medina A. Determination of pesticides in olives by gas chromatography using different detection systems. J Chromatogr A 2007; 1145:195-203. [PMID: 17289055 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2007.01.068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2006] [Revised: 01/10/2007] [Accepted: 01/18/2007] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
A multiresidue method has been developed and optimized for the quantitative analysis of 32 pesticides in olives. The extraction was based on homogenization with light petroleum using a high speed homogenizer. A gel permeation chromatography (GPC) clean-up process with ethyl acetate/cyclohexane (1:1) as mobile phase was applied to the extracts to separate the low-molecular mass pesticides from the high-molecular mass fat constituents of the oil. The target compounds were quantified in the final extract by gas chromatography (GC) using thermoionic specific detection (TSD) and electron-capture detection (ECD). In the case of positive samples, the amounts found were confirmed by GC-MS/MS. The obtained recovery (with mean values between 70 and 121, 71 and 114, and 82 and 134% for ECD, TSD and MS/MS systems, respectively) and RSD values (repeatability, n=10) below 16% in all cases confirm the usefulness of the proposed method for the analysis of this complex sample. Diuron, terbuthylazine and endosulfan sulfate were the most frequently detected residues in olive samples collected during the harvest 2004-2005. Finally, in order to know the proportion of pesticides that are transferred to the oil during olive oil production in olive mills, obtained results in some of the sampled olives applying the proposed method were compared to levels found in the corresponding olive oil, which was obtained by means of the Abencor method.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Guardia-Rubio
- Department of Physical and Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Experimental Sciences, University of Jaén, Paraje Las Lagunillas, s/n, E-23071 Jaén, Spain
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Cortés JM, Sanchez R, Villén J, Vazquez A. Analysis of unsaponifiable compounds of edible oils by automated on-line coupling reversed-phase liquid chromatography-gas chromatography using the through oven transfer adsorption desorption interface. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2006; 54:6963-8. [PMID: 16968049 DOI: 10.1021/jf060956e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
An automated method for analysis of unsaponifiable compounds in edible oils is presented. The method involves the on-line coupling of reversed-phase liquid chromatography and gas chromatography (LC-GC) using the through oven transfer adsorption desorption (TOTAD) interface. The oil is injected directly with no sample pretreatment step other than filtration. It may also be considered to dilute the oil sample. In the LC step, a short C4 column using a methanol/water eluent separates analytes from the other components of the oils, which are made up of mainly triglycerides. A LC fraction of up to 1.6 mL containing the analytes is transferred to GC at a flow rate of 0.1-2 mL/min. The TOTAD interface allows solvent venting and the introduction of the analytes into the GC column. The proposed fully automated method allows the analysis of different groups of compounds (free sterols, tocopherols, squalene, and erythrodiol and uvaol) in one chromatographic run or the analysis of these compounds in different groups. Sensitivity is more than necessary, and repeatability is good, the CV ranging from 3 to 12% for the full analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose Manuel Cortés
- Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario s/n, 02071 Albacete, Spain
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20
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García-Reyes JF, Ferrer C, Thurman EM, Fernandez-Alba AR, Ferrer I. Analysis of herbicides in olive oil by liquid chromatography time-of-flight mass spectrometry. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2006; 54:6493-500. [PMID: 16939302 DOI: 10.1021/jf060865h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
The application of liquid chromatography time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC/TOF-MS) for the identification and quantitation of four herbicides (simazine, atrazine, diuron, and terbuthylazine) in olive oil samples is reported here. The method includes a sample treatment step based on a preliminary liquid-liquid extraction followed by matrix solid-phase dispersion (MSPD) using aminopropyl as a sorbent material. A final cleanup step is performed with florisil using acetonitrile as an eluting solvent. The identification by LC/TOF-MS is accomplished with the accurate mass (and the subsequent generated empirical formula) of the protonated molecules [M + H]+, along with the accurate mass of the main fragment ion and the characteristic chlorine isotope cluster present in all of them. Accurate mass measurements are highly useful in this type of complex sample analyses since they allow us to achieve a high degree of specificity, often needed when other interferents are present in the matrix. The mass accuracy typically obtained is routinely better than 2 ppm. The sensitivity, linearity, precision, mass accuracy, and matrix effects are studied as well, illustrating the potential of this technique for routine quantitative analyses of herbicides in olive oil. Limits of detection (LODs) range from 1 to 5 microg/kg, which are far below the required maximum residue level (MRL) of 100 microg/kg for these herbicides in olive oil.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan F García-Reyes
- Pesticide Residue Research Group, University of Almería, 04120 Almería, Spain
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Cortés JM, Sanchez R, Díaz-Plaza EM, Villén J, Vazquez A. Large volume GC injection for the analysis of organophosphorus pesticides in vegetables using the through oven transfer adsorption desorption (TOTAD) interface. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2006; 54:1997-2002. [PMID: 16536567 DOI: 10.1021/jf0524675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
A simple, rapid and sensitive multiresidue method has been developed for the determination in vegetables of organophosphorus pesticides commonly used in crop protection. Pesticide residues are extracted from samples with a small amount of ethyl acetate and anhydrous sodium sulfate. No additional concentration and cleanup steps are necessary. Analyses are performed by large volume GC injection using the through oven transfer adsorption desorption (TOTAD) interface. The calculated limits of detection for each pesticide injecting 50 microL of extract and using an NPD are lower than 0.35 microg/kg which is much lower than the maximum residues levels (MRLs) established by European legislation. Repeatability studies yielded a relative standard deviation lower than 10% in all cases. The method was applied to the analysis of eggplant, lettuce, pepper, cucumber, and tomato.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose M Cortés
- Escuela Universitaria de Magisterio de Albacete, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Universitario s/n, 02071 Albacete, Spain
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Guardia-Rubio M, Fernández-De Córdova ML, Ayora-Cañada MJ, Ruiz-Medina A. Simplified pesticide multiresidue analysis in virgin olive oil by gas chromatography with thermoionic specific, electron-capture and mass spectrometric detection. J Chromatogr A 2006; 1108:231-9. [PMID: 16430909 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2006.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2005] [Revised: 10/26/2005] [Accepted: 01/03/2006] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
In the present work, an analytical multiresidue method has been developed for the analysis of 32 organochlorine, organophosphorus and organonitrogen pesticides at microg kg(-1) levels in virgin olive oil. The method consists of the extraction of the pesticides with acetonitrile saturated in n-hexane followed by a clean-up process based on gel permeation chromatography (GPC) with ethyl acetate-ciclohexane (1:1) as mobile phase to separate the low-molecular mass pesticides from the high-molecular mass fat constituents of the oil. The target compounds were determined in the final extract by gas chromatography (GC) using thermoionic specific (TSD) and electron-capture (ECD) detection. In the case of positive samples, the amounts found were confirmed by GC-MS/MS, being the results in good agreement. Recoveries and RSDs (n = 10) values were 91-124% and 1-8% (GC-ECD), 82-100% and 9-20% (GC-TSD), and 89-105% and 4-14% (GC-MS/MS), respectively. The three proposed methods were applied to samples collected directly in two olive mills located in the Jaén province (Spain). Specifically, 24 samples of virgin olive oil were collected. The most frequently pesticide residues found were the herbicides terbuthylazine and diuron and endosulfan sulfate, a degradation product of the insecticide endosulfan. The herbicide concentration was higher in those oil samples obtained from olives which were collected from the ground after they had fallen down than in those oil samples from olives harvested directly from the tree. The GC-MS/MS developed method was also applied to the analysis of an olive oil sample from a proficiency test spiked with organochlorine pesticides and all the values obtained were within the specified "satisfactory" range.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Guardia-Rubio
- Department of Physical and Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Experimental Sciences, University of Jaén, Paraje Las Lagunillas, s/n, E-23071 Jaén, Spain
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