1
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Chen SR, Chen LH, Pan L, Wang B. Application of luminescent Photobacterium Phosphoreum T3 for the detection of zearalenone and estimating the efficiency of their enzymatic degradation. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2024; 41:979-988. [PMID: 38857317 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2024.2363397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2024] [Accepted: 05/28/2024] [Indexed: 06/12/2024]
Abstract
Zearalenone (ZEN), a nonsteroidal estrogenic mycotoxin, causes enormous economic losses in the food and feed industries. Simple, rapid, low-cost, and quantitative analysis of ZEN is particularly urgent in the fields of food safety and animal husbandry. Using the bioluminescent bacterium Photobacterium phosphoreum T3, we propose a bioluminescence inhibition assay to evaluate ZEN levels quickly. The limit of detection (LOD), limit of quantification (LOQ), and quantitative working range of this bioluminescence inhibition assay were 0.1 µg/mL, 5 µg/mL, and 5-100 µg/mL, respectively. The concentration-response curve of the bioluminescence inhibition rate and ZEN concentration was plotted within the range 5 to 100 μg/mL, as follows: y = 0.0069x2 - 0.0190x + 7.9907 (R2 = 0.9943, y is luminescence inhibition rate, x is ZEN concentration). First, we used the bioluminescence inhibition assay to detect the remaining ZEN in samples treated with purified lactonohydrolase ZHD101. The bioluminescence inhibition assay results showed a strong correlation with the HPLC analysis. Furthermore, we successfully evaluated the overall toxicity of samples treated with purified peroxidase Prx and H2O2 using the P. phosphoreum T3 bioluminescence inhibition assay. The results indicate that the degradation products of ZEN created by purified peroxidase Prx and H2O2 showed little toxicity to P. phosphoreum T3. In this study, a simple, rapid, and low-cost assay method of zearalenone by bioluminescent P. phosphoreum T3 was developed. The bioluminescence inhibition assay could be used to estimate the efficiency of enzymatic degradation of ZEN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shu-Rong Chen
- School of Biology and Biological Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Fermentation and Enzyme Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
| | - Li-Hong Chen
- School of Biology and Biological Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Fermentation and Enzyme Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
| | - Li Pan
- School of Biology and Biological Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
| | - Bin Wang
- School of Biology and Biological Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Fermentation and Enzyme Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
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2
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Chen X, Abdallah MF, Landschoot S, Audenaert K, De Saeger S, Chen X, Rajkovic A. Aspergillus flavus and Fusarium verticillioides and Their Main Mycotoxins: Global Distribution and Scenarios of Interactions in Maize. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:577. [PMID: 37756003 PMCID: PMC10534665 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15090577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2023] [Revised: 08/25/2023] [Accepted: 09/04/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Maize is frequently contaminated with multiple mycotoxins, especially those produced by Aspergillus flavus and Fusarium verticillioides. As mycotoxin contamination is a critical factor that destabilizes global food safety, the current review provides an updated overview of the (co-)occurrence of A. flavus and F. verticillioides and (co-)contamination of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and fumonisin B1 (FB1) in maize. Furthermore, it summarizes their interactions in maize. The gathered data predict the (co-)occurrence and virulence of A. flavus and F. verticillioides would increase worldwide, especially in European cold climate countries. Studies on the interaction of both fungi regarding their growth mainly showed antagonistic interactions in vitro or in planta conditions. However, the (co-)contamination of AFB1 and FB1 has risen worldwide in the last decade. Primarily, this co-contamination increased by 32% in Europe (2010-2020 vs. 1992-2009). This implies that fungi and mycotoxins would severely threaten European-grown maize.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiangrong Chen
- Department of Food Technology, Safety and Health, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; (M.F.A.); (A.R.)
- Department of Plants and Crops, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; (S.L.); (K.A.)
| | - Mohamed F. Abdallah
- Department of Food Technology, Safety and Health, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; (M.F.A.); (A.R.)
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Assiut University, Assiut 71515, Egypt
| | - Sofie Landschoot
- Department of Plants and Crops, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; (S.L.); (K.A.)
| | - Kris Audenaert
- Department of Plants and Crops, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; (S.L.); (K.A.)
| | - Sarah De Saeger
- Centre of Excellence in Mycotoxicology and Public Health, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium;
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, Doornfontein Campus, P.O. Box 17011, Gauteng 2028, South Africa
| | - Xiangfeng Chen
- Shandong Analysis and Test Centre, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Science), Jinan 250014, China;
| | - Andreja Rajkovic
- Department of Food Technology, Safety and Health, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; (M.F.A.); (A.R.)
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3
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Janić Hajnal E, Kos J, Pezo L, Radić B, Malachová A, Krska R, Sulyok M. Presence of
Alternaria
toxins in maize from Republic of Serbia during 2016–2017. J FOOD PROCESS PRES 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/jfpp.15827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Elizabet Janić Hajnal
- Institute of Food Technology in Novi Sad University of Novi Sad Novi Sad Republic of Serbia
| | - Jovana Kos
- Institute of Food Technology in Novi Sad University of Novi Sad Novi Sad Republic of Serbia
| | - Lato Pezo
- Institute of General and Physical Chemistry University of Belgrade Belgrade Republic of Serbia
| | - Bojana Radić
- Institute of Food Technology in Novi Sad University of Novi Sad Novi Sad Republic of Serbia
| | - Alexandra Malachová
- Department IFA‐Tulln University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU) Tulln Austria
| | - Rudolf Krska
- Department IFA‐Tulln University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU) Tulln Austria
| | - Michael Sulyok
- Department IFA‐Tulln University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU) Tulln Austria
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4
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Changwa R, De Boevre M, De Saeger S, Njobeh PB. Feed-Based Multi-Mycotoxin Occurrence in Smallholder Dairy Farming Systems of South Africa: The Case of Limpopo and Free State. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13020166. [PMID: 33671584 PMCID: PMC7927053 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13020166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2021] [Revised: 02/04/2021] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxin contamination of feed does not only cut across food and feed value chains but compromises animal productivity and health, affecting farmers, traders and consumers alike. To aid in the development of a sustainable strategy for mycotoxin control in animal-based food production systems, this study focused on smallholder farming systems where 77 dairy cattle feed samples were collected from 28 smallholder dairy establishments in the Limpopo and Free State provinces of South Africa between 2018 and 2019. Samples were analyzed using a confirmatory UHPLC–MS/MS (Ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry) method validated for simultaneous detection of 23 mycotoxins in feeds. Overall, mycotoxins assessed were detected across samples with 86% of samples containing at least one mycotoxin above respective decision limits; up to 66% of samples were found to be contaminated with at least three mycotoxins. Findings demonstrated that deoxynivalenol, sterigmatocystin, alternariol and enniatin B were the most common mycotoxins, while low to marginal detection rates were observed for all other mycotoxins with none of the samples containing fusarenon-X, HT-2-toxin and neosolaniol. Isolated cases of deoxynivalenol (maximum: 2385 µg/kg), aflatoxins (AFB1 (maximum: 30.2 µg/kg)/AFG1 (maximum: 23.1 µg/kg)), and zearalenone (maximum: 1793 µg/kg) in excess of local and European regulatory limits were found. Kruskal–Wallis testing for pairwise comparisons showed commercial feed had significantly higher contamination for deoxynivalenol and its acylated derivatives, ochratoxin A and fumonisins (FB1 and FB2), whereas forages had significantly higher alternariol; in addition to significantly higher fumonisin B1 contamination for Limpopo coupled with significantly higher enniatin B and sterigmatocystin for Free State. Statistically significant Spearman correlations (p < 0.01) were also apparent for ratios for deoxynivalenol/fumonisin B1 (rs = 0.587) and zearalenone/alternariol methylether (rs = 0.544).
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Affiliation(s)
- Rumbidzai Changwa
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, Doornfontein Campus, University of Johannesburg, P.O. Box 17011, Gauteng 2028, South Africa; (R.C.); (S.D.S.)
| | - Marthe De Boevre
- Center of Excellence in Mycotoxicology & Public Health, Department of Bioanalysis, Ghent University, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
- Correspondence: (M.D.B.); (P.B.N.)
| | - Sarah De Saeger
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, Doornfontein Campus, University of Johannesburg, P.O. Box 17011, Gauteng 2028, South Africa; (R.C.); (S.D.S.)
- Center of Excellence in Mycotoxicology & Public Health, Department of Bioanalysis, Ghent University, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Patrick Berka Njobeh
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, Doornfontein Campus, University of Johannesburg, P.O. Box 17011, Gauteng 2028, South Africa; (R.C.); (S.D.S.)
- Correspondence: (M.D.B.); (P.B.N.)
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5
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van Deventer MM, Pretorius B, Schönfeldt HC. A preliminary study on mycotoxin contamination in red meat from registered abattoirs in South Africa. Mycotoxin Res 2021; 37:105-108. [PMID: 33409987 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-020-00420-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2020] [Revised: 11/04/2020] [Accepted: 12/01/2020] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The frequency of some major mycotoxins in marker tissues (liver and kidney) and in muscle tissue of slaughter pigs and cattle, obtained from registered abattoirs in South Africa, was studied. Samples of each three bovine carcasses were obtained from two abattoirs, and samples of three porcine carcasses were from a third abattoir. All samples originated from animals from subsistence farming. All samples were analysed for aflatoxins (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2, deoxynivalenol (DON), ochratoxin A (OTA) and zearalenone (ZEN) using immunoaffinity chromatography extract cleanup and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). At a limit of quantification (LOQ) of 1 μg/kg (individual AFs, 100 μg/kg (DON), 1 μg/kg (OTA) and 20 μg/kg (ZEN)), no mycotoxins were detected in any of the samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maricia Margrit van Deventer
- School of Health Systems and Public Health, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa. .,Department of Animal and Wildlife Science, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa.
| | - Beulah Pretorius
- School of Health Systems and Public Health, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa.,Department of Animal and Wildlife Science, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Hester Carina Schönfeldt
- School of Health Systems and Public Health, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa.,Department of Animal and Wildlife Science, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
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6
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Tebele SM, Gbashi S, Adebo O, Changwa R, Naidu K, Njobeh PB. Quantification of multi-mycotoxin in cereals (maize, maize porridge, sorghum and wheat) from Limpopo province of South Africa. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2020; 37:1922-1938. [PMID: 32897164 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2020.1808715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites that are produced by filamentous mycotoxigenic fungi belonging to the Alternaria, Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium genera amongst others. Multi-class mycotoxins were extracted from 55 cereal samples and analysed using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The adopted extraction method for maize, maize porridge, sorghum and wheat was comprehensively validated. This method was further tested to determine the natural occurrence of mycotoxins in foodstuffs. Twelve (12) out of 22 mycotoxins were detected in maize, maize porridge, sorghum and wheat, including α-zearalenol (α-ZEL) (89%), fumonisin B3 (FB3) (84%), fumonisin B1 (FB1) (80%), tenuazonic acid (TeA) (78%), ochratoxin B (42%), deoxynivalenol (DON) (12%), ochratoxin A (11%), 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol (7%), sterigmatocystin (STG) (6%), 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol (2%), cyclopiazonic acid (CPA) (2%) and aflatoxin B2 (2%). The data revealed high incidence rate of α-ZEL (range: 6.5-70.5 µg kg-1) in all matrices. Maize samples had high mycotoxin co-occurrence compared to other matrices. All recovered mycotoxins in food commodities were within the maximum regulatory limits, with the exception of fumonisins (FB1 and FB3) exceeded the South African and European Commission regulation, and the highest concentration was 2153 µg kg-1 in maize. It is essential to monitor the level of emerging mycotoxins in food commodities from rural areas as trace amount of CPA (< limit of quantification), STG (range: 0.30-0.74 µg kg-1) were detected and high concentration of TeA (292.7 µg kg-1) was detected in sorghum. The occurrence of these mycotoxins further encourages frequent analyses, their co-occurrence in the samples poses a significant threat to public health and more emphasis should thus be placed on reducing the contamination levels of these toxins in staples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shandry Mmasetshaba Tebele
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, Doornfontein Campus , Doornfontein, South Africa
| | - Sefater Gbashi
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, Doornfontein Campus , Doornfontein, South Africa
| | - Oluwafemi Adebo
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, Doornfontein Campus , Doornfontein, South Africa
| | - Rumbidzai Changwa
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, Doornfontein Campus , Doornfontein, South Africa
| | - Kayleen Naidu
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, Doornfontein Campus , Doornfontein, South Africa
| | - Patrick Berka Njobeh
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, Doornfontein Campus , Doornfontein, South Africa
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7
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Yapo AE, Strub C, Durand N, Ahoua ARC, Schorr-Galindo S, Bonfoh B, Fontana A, Koussémon M. Mass spectrometry-based detection and risk assessment of mycotoxin contamination of ‘kankankan’ used for roasted meat consumption in Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2020; 37:1564-1578. [DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2020.1784468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Armel Elysée Yapo
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Université Nangui Abrogoua, Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire
- Department Research and Development, Centre Suisse De Recherches Scientifiques En Côte d’Ivoire (CSRS), Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire
| | - Caroline Strub
- QualiSud, Univ Montpellier, CIRAD, Montpellier SupAgro, Univ d’Avignon, Univ De La Réunion, Montpellier, France
| | - Noël Durand
- QualiSud, Univ Montpellier, CIRAD, Montpellier SupAgro, Univ d’Avignon, Univ De La Réunion, Montpellier, France
- CIRAD, UMR Qualisud, Montpellier, France
| | - Angora Rémi Constant Ahoua
- Department Research and Development, Centre Suisse De Recherches Scientifiques En Côte d’Ivoire (CSRS), Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire
| | - Sabine Schorr-Galindo
- QualiSud, Univ Montpellier, CIRAD, Montpellier SupAgro, Univ d’Avignon, Univ De La Réunion, Montpellier, France
| | - Bassirou Bonfoh
- Department Research and Development, Centre Suisse De Recherches Scientifiques En Côte d’Ivoire (CSRS), Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire
| | - Angélique Fontana
- QualiSud, Univ Montpellier, CIRAD, Montpellier SupAgro, Univ d’Avignon, Univ De La Réunion, Montpellier, France
| | - Marina Koussémon
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Université Nangui Abrogoua, Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire
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8
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Tshalibe R, Rheeder J, Alberts J, Taljaard-Krugell C, Gelderblom W, Shephard G, Lombard M, Burger HM. Multi-mycotoxin exposure of children (0-24 months) in rural maize-subsistence farming areas of the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2020. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2019.2439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
In South Africa, child malnutrition is highly prevalent among children from in rural areas mostly at risk. In the Eastern Cape (EC) Province, maize is commonly used as complementary and weaning food. Previous studies conducted in parts of EC have indicated high levels of fumonisin B (FB) mycotoxins in home-grown maize, as well as the co-occurrence of other Fusarium mycotoxins, such as deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEN). A cross-sectional study of children below 24 months was conducted in rural maize-subsistence farming areas in Centane, EC to determine mycotoxin exposure. Home-grown maize samples (n=171) were collected from households in the study area and analysed by LC-MS/MS for FB, DON and ZEN. Food intakes of 129 children were quantified using a validated quantitative food frequency questionnaire (QFFQ). Individual raw maize consumption was calculated using recipes from the QFFQ. Probable daily intakes (PDIs) for each mycotoxin were determined using a deterministic approach and were compared to the respective mycotoxins’ provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI). The numerical means for total FB (sum of fumonisin B1, B2 and B3), DON and ZEN levels in home-grown maize were 1,035, 24.5 and 31.0 μg/kg, respectively. Mean daily maize intakes of children ranged from 2-321 g/day and increased with age. The mean PDIs for total FB, DON and ZEN were 8.4, 0.2 and 0.3 μg/kg body weight (bw)/day, respectively. Exposures stratified by age indicated persistent high mean PDIs for total FB, above the PMTDI of 2 μg/kg bw/day, ranging between 5.0-11.6 μg/kg bw/day. Mean exposure to DON and ZEN were below their relevant PMTDIs (1 and 0.5 μg/kg bw/day, respectively). Individually, 81 and 13% of children had exposures above the PMTDI for total FB and for ZEN, respectively. Results confirm the magnitude of FB exposure among vulnerable groups from rural maize subsistence farming areas in EC.
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Affiliation(s)
- R.S. Tshalibe
- Centre of Excellence for Nutrition (CEN), Faculty of Health Sciences, North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa
| | - J.P. Rheeder
- Department of Food Sciences and Technology, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, P.O. Box 1906, Bellville 7535, South Africa
| | - J.F. Alberts
- Department of Biotechnology and Consumer Science, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, P.O. Box 652, Cape Town 8000, South Africa
| | - C. Taljaard-Krugell
- Centre of Excellence for Nutrition (CEN), Faculty of Health Sciences, North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa
| | - W.C.A. Gelderblom
- Department of Biochemistry, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland 7602, South Africa
| | - G.S. Shephard
- Department of Biotechnology and Consumer Science, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, P.O. Box 652, Cape Town 8000, South Africa
| | - M.J. Lombard
- Centre of Excellence for Nutrition (CEN), Faculty of Health Sciences, North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa
| | - H-M. Burger
- Unit of Research Integrity, Research Directorate, Peninsula University of Technology, P.O. Box 652, Cape Town 8000, South Africa
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9
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Janić Hajnal E, Kos J, Malachová A, Steiner D, Stranska M, Krska R, Sulyok M. Mycotoxins in maize harvested in Serbia in the period 2012-2015. Part 2: Non-regulated mycotoxins and other fungal metabolites. Food Chem 2020; 317:126409. [PMID: 32087516 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.126409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2019] [Revised: 01/10/2020] [Accepted: 02/12/2020] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The main objective of this study was to screen, for the first time, the natural occurrence of non-regulated fungal metabolites in 204 maize samples harvested in Serbia in maize growing seasons with extreme drought (2012), extreme precipitation and flood (2014) and moderate drought conditions (2013 and 2015). In total, 109 non-regulated fungal metabolites were detected in examined samples, whereby each sample was contaminated between 13 and 55 non-regulated fungal metabolites. Moniliformin and beauvericin occurred in all samples collected from each year. In samples from year 2012, oxaline, questiomycin A, cyclo (l-Pro-l-Val), cyclo (l-Pro-l-Tyr), bikaverin, kojic acid and 3-nitropropionic acid were the most predominant (98.0-100%). All samples from 2014 were contaminated with 7-hydroxypestalotin, 15-hydroxyculmorin, culmorin, butenolid and aurofusarin. Bikaverin and oxaline were quantified in 100% samples from 2013 and 2015, while 3-nitropropionic acid additionally occurred in 100% samples from 2015.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabet Janić Hajnal
- Institute of Food Technology, University of Novi Sad, Bulevar cara Lazara 1, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia.
| | - Jovana Kos
- Institute of Food Technology, University of Novi Sad, Bulevar cara Lazara 1, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Alexandra Malachová
- Department for Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Konrad Lorenz Str. 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - David Steiner
- Department for Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Konrad Lorenz Str. 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Milena Stranska
- UCT Prague, Faculty of Food and Biochemical Technology, Department of Food Analysis and Nutrition, Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Rudolf Krska
- Department for Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Konrad Lorenz Str. 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria; Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queens University Belfast, University Road, Belfast BT7 1NN, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom
| | - Michael Sulyok
- Department for Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Konrad Lorenz Str. 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
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10
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Aichinger G, Pantazi F, Marko D. Combinatory estrogenic effects of bisphenol A in mixtures with alternariol and zearalenone in human endometrial cells. Toxicol Lett 2019; 319:242-249. [PMID: 31733320 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2019.10.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2019] [Revised: 09/06/2019] [Accepted: 10/27/2019] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Humans are typically exposed to mixtures of substances, whereby their bioactivity can be significantly altered by co-occurring compounds. Thus, over the last years, research on combinatory effects has gained increasing attention. In particular, several xenoestrogens have been recently reported to interact synergistically, among them alternariol (AOH) and zearalenone (ZEN), two toxins produced by molds which contaminate crops or food commodities. Bisphenol A (BPA) is a potential food contaminant arising from its use in plastics and represents a well-known xenoestrogen, acting as an endocrine disruptor. However, little research was yet conducted on its impact on the bioactivity of other xenoestrogens, and vice versa. Thus, in this study, we focused on combinatory estrogenic effects of BPA with AOH and ZEN in Ishikawa cells, which represent a well-established, estrogen-sensitive human cell model. Estrogenic stimuli of the single compounds and binary combinations in constant concentration ratios were measured by assessing the activity of alkaline phosphatase, a natural reporter gene for estrogen receptor activation. In parallel, cytotoxicity was monitored by neutral red assay. For statistical analysis of combinatory effects the "combination index" model was applied. In combination with ZEN, BPA was found to cause additive estrogenic effects. Mixtures of BPA with AOH expressed moderately antagonistic to nearly additive combinatory effects, depending on the concentration ratio. Although no synergistic effects were measured in the applied chemical mixtures, additive estrogenic stimuli were observed, underlining the importance to consider the cumulative impact of endocrine active factors out of different sources and structural classes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georg Aichinger
- University of Vienna, Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Waehringerstr. 38, A-1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Foteini Pantazi
- University of Vienna, Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Waehringerstr. 38, A-1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Doris Marko
- University of Vienna, Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Waehringerstr. 38, A-1090 Vienna, Austria.
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11
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Prevalent Mycotoxins in Animal Feed: Occurrence and Analytical Methods. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11050290. [PMID: 31121952 PMCID: PMC6563184 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11050290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2019] [Revised: 05/16/2019] [Accepted: 05/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Today, we have been witnessing a steady tendency in the increase of global demand for maize, wheat, soybeans, and their products due to the steady growth and strengthening of the livestock industry. Thus, animal feed safety has gradually become more important, with mycotoxins representing one of the most significant hazards. Mycotoxins comprise different classes of secondary metabolites of molds. With regard to animal feed, aflatoxins, fumonisins, ochratoxins, trichothecenes, and zearalenone are the more prevalent ones. In this review, several constraints posed by these contaminants at economical and commercial levels will be discussed, along with the legislation established in the European Union to restrict mycotoxins levels in animal feed. In addition, the occurrence of legislated mycotoxins in raw materials and their by-products for the feeds of interest, as well as in the feeds, will be reviewed. Finally, an overview of the different sample pretreatment and detection techniques reported for mycotoxin analysis will be presented, the main weaknesses of current methods will be highlighted.
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Meyer H, Skhosana ZD, Motlanthe M, Louw W, Rohwer E. Long Term Monitoring (2014⁻2018) of Multi-Mycotoxins in South African Commercial Maize and Wheat with a Locally Developed and Validated LC-MS/MS Method. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11050271. [PMID: 31091836 PMCID: PMC6563230 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11050271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2019] [Revised: 05/10/2019] [Accepted: 05/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins occur worldwide in the major grains, and producers, traders and processors are all challenged to prevent serious health problems for consumers. The challenges originate with pre-harvest fungi infections in the grain fields, increased contamination during improper storage and, finally, the mycotoxin accumulation in commercial food and feed products. Little is known about the multi-mycotoxin occurrence in maize and wheat commercially produced in South Africa. This is the first comprehensive study that reports on the multi-mycotoxin occurrence in South African produced maize and wheat crops after harvest, over four production seasons, in all the production regions of the country. The study was made possible with the development of a fit-for-purpose, cost-effective LC-MS/MS multi-mycotoxin method, validated for 13 “regulated” mycotoxins. A low mycotoxin risk was found in South African produced wheat, with only deoxynivalenol (DON) in 12.5% of the 160 samples at levels well below the 2000 µg/kg South African (SA) regulatory level. It was concluded that aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is seldom present in South African produced commercial maize. The concentrations, regional variation and seasonal trends of deoxynivalenol and fumonisins, the two most prevalent mycotoxins, and of zearalenone (ZON), are reported for white and yellow maize in all the production provinces, based on the analytical results of 1400 maize samples. A threefold to eightfold increase in deoxynivalenol mean concentrations in white maize was observed in the main production regions in the fourth season, with 8.9% samples above 2000 µg/kg. A strong correlation was found between higher deoxynivalenol concentrations and the presence of 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (15-ADON). The mean fumonisin concentrations were well below the 4000 µg/kg South African regulatory value. A possible shift in the incidence and severity of mycotoxigenic Fusarium spp. in the provinces must be investigated. The variations and trends highlight the importance of a continuous monitoring of multi-mycotoxins in South Africa along the grain value chain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannalien Meyer
- The Southern African Grain Laboratory (SAGL), Grain Building-Agri Hub Office Park, 477 Witherite Street, The Willows, Pretoria 0040, South Africa.
| | - Zanele Diana Skhosana
- The Southern African Grain Laboratory (SAGL), Grain Building-Agri Hub Office Park, 477 Witherite Street, The Willows, Pretoria 0040, South Africa.
| | - Mamsy Motlanthe
- The Southern African Grain Laboratory (SAGL), Grain Building-Agri Hub Office Park, 477 Witherite Street, The Willows, Pretoria 0040, South Africa.
| | - Wiana Louw
- The Southern African Grain Laboratory (SAGL), Grain Building-Agri Hub Office Park, 477 Witherite Street, The Willows, Pretoria 0040, South Africa.
| | - Egmont Rohwer
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0028, South Africa.
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Shephard GS, Burger HM, Rheeder JP, Alberts JF, Gelderblom WC. The effectiveness of regulatory maximum levels for fumonisin mycotoxins in commercial and subsistence maize crops in South Africa. Food Control 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2018.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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14
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Mishra S, Srivastava S, Dewangan J, Divakar A, Kumar Rath S. Global occurrence of deoxynivalenol in food commodities and exposure risk assessment in humans in the last decade: a survey. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2019; 60:1346-1374. [DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2019.1571479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sakshi Mishra
- Genotoxicity Laboratory, Division of Toxicology and Experimental Medicine, Central Drug Research Institute (CSIR-CDRI), Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Sonal Srivastava
- Genotoxicity Laboratory, Division of Toxicology and Experimental Medicine, Central Drug Research Institute (CSIR-CDRI), Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Jayant Dewangan
- Genotoxicity Laboratory, Division of Toxicology and Experimental Medicine, Central Drug Research Institute (CSIR-CDRI), Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Aman Divakar
- Genotoxicity Laboratory, Division of Toxicology and Experimental Medicine, Central Drug Research Institute (CSIR-CDRI), Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Srikanta Kumar Rath
- Genotoxicity Laboratory, Division of Toxicology and Experimental Medicine, Central Drug Research Institute (CSIR-CDRI), Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
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Wang SS, Cui H, Ye J, Wu Y, Wang SX, Yin WB. Identification and Determination of Rubrofusarin, Rubrofusarin Isomer, and Their Quinone Forms in Grains Using High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry. ACS OMEGA 2018; 3:15924-15932. [PMID: 30556018 PMCID: PMC6288782 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.8b02079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2018] [Accepted: 11/07/2018] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Fungi of the genus Fusarium can produce secondary metabolites such as naphthopyrones and naphthoquinones that are toxic and expected to threaten the food and feed safety. In this study, the occurrence of rubrofusarin, rubrofusarin isomer, and their quinone forms in grains was identified and confirmed using ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography coupled with hybrid quadrupole orbital ion trap mass spectrometry (Q-Orbitrap MS). The quantitation of these compounds in grain samples was also investigated using Q-Orbitrap MS. The results showed the concentrations of rubrofusarin ranged from 3.278 to 33.82 μg/kg, from 0.815 to 61.86 μg/kg, and from 7.362 to 47.24 μg/kg for the maize, rice, and wheat samples, respectively. By comparison, the abundances of their quinone forms were relatively lower, and the concentration of quinone form of rubrofusarin isomer was relatively higher than that of quinone form of rubrofusarin. These compounds were also confirmed to coexist with other known Fusarium mycotoxins. The data-dependent tandem mass spectra obtained from the Q-Orbitrap MS were validated to provide a wealth of valuable information that allowed for advanced data interpretation for solid confirmation of these compounds in grains. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study that concerns the occurrence and quantitation of rubrofusarin, rubrofusarin isomer, and their quinone forms in grains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Song-shan Wang
- Academy
of State Administration of Grain, 11 Baiwanzhuang Street, Xicheng
District, Beijing 100037, People’s Republic of China
| | - Hua Cui
- Academy
of State Administration of Grain, 11 Baiwanzhuang Street, Xicheng
District, Beijing 100037, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jin Ye
- Academy
of State Administration of Grain, 11 Baiwanzhuang Street, Xicheng
District, Beijing 100037, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yu Wu
- Academy
of State Administration of Grain, 11 Baiwanzhuang Street, Xicheng
District, Beijing 100037, People’s Republic of China
| | - Song-xue Wang
- Academy
of State Administration of Grain, 11 Baiwanzhuang Street, Xicheng
District, Beijing 100037, People’s Republic of China
- E-mail: . Phone/Fax: +86-10-58523708
| | - Wen-bing Yin
- State
Key Laboratory of Mycology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, People’s Republic of China
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16
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Multi-mycotoxin determination in rice, maize and peanut products most consumed in Côte d’Ivoire by UHPLC-MS/MS. Food Control 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2017.11.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
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17
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Ezekiel CN, Ayeni KI, Misihairabgwi JM, Somorin YM, Chibuzor-Onyema IE, Oyedele OA, Abia WA, Sulyok M, Shephard GS, Krska R. Traditionally Processed Beverages in Africa: A Review of the Mycotoxin Occurrence Patterns and Exposure Assessment. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2018; 17:334-351. [DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2017] [Revised: 11/23/2017] [Accepted: 11/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chibundu N. Ezekiel
- Dept. of Microbiology; Babcock Univ.; Ilishan Remo Ogun State Nigeria
- Dept. of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), Center for Analytical Chemistry; Univ. of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU); Konrad Lorenzstr. 20 A-3430 Tulln Austria
| | - Kolawole I. Ayeni
- Dept. of Microbiology; Babcock Univ.; Ilishan Remo Ogun State Nigeria
| | - Jane M. Misihairabgwi
- Dept. of Biochemistry and Microbiology, School of Medicine; Univ. of Namibia; P. Bag 13301 Windhoek Namibia
| | - Yinka M. Somorin
- Microbiology, School of Natural Sciences; Natl. Univ. of Ireland; Galway Ireland
| | | | | | - Wilfred A. Abia
- School of Toxicology, Occupational Health/Safety and Risk Assessment, COSET; Inst. for Management and Professional Training (IMPT); Yaounde Cameroon
| | - Michael Sulyok
- Dept. of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), Center for Analytical Chemistry; Univ. of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU); Konrad Lorenzstr. 20 A-3430 Tulln Austria
| | - Gordon S. Shephard
- Mycotoxicology and Chemoprevention Research Group, Inst. of Biomedical and Microbial Biotechnology; Cape Peninsula Univ. of Technology; PO Box 1906 Bellville 7535 South Africa
| | - Rudolf Krska
- Dept. of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), Center for Analytical Chemistry; Univ. of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU); Konrad Lorenzstr. 20 A-3430 Tulln Austria
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Misihairabgwi JM, Ezekiel CN, Sulyok M, Shephard GS, Krska R. Mycotoxin contamination of foods in Southern Africa: A 10-year review (2007-2016). Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2017; 59:43-58. [PMID: 28799776 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2017.1357003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Major staple foods in Southern Africa are prone to mycotoxin contamination, posing health risks to consumers and consequent economic losses. Regional climatic zones favor the growth of one or more main mycotoxin producing fungi, Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium. Aflatoxin contamination is mainly reported in maize, peanuts and their products, fumonisin contamination in maize and maize products and patulin in apple juice. Lack of awareness of occurrence and risks of mycotoxins, poor agricultural practices and undiversified diets predispose populations to dietary mycotoxin exposure. Due to a scarcity of reports in Southern Africa, reviews on mycotoxin contamination of foods in Africa have mainly focused on Central, Eastern and Western Africa. However, over the last decade, a substantial number of reports of dietary mycotoxins in South Africa have been documented, with fewer reports documented in Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Despite the reported high dietary levels of mycotoxins, legislation for their control is absent in most countries in the region. This review presents an up-to-date documentation of the epidemiology of mycotoxins in agricultural food commodities and discusses the implications on public health, current and recommended mitigation strategies, legislation, and challenges of mycotoxin research in Southern Africa.
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Affiliation(s)
- J M Misihairabgwi
- a Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, School of Medicine , University of Namibia , Windhoek, Namibia. P. Bag 13301, Windhoek , Namibia
| | - C N Ezekiel
- b Department of Microbiology , Babcock University, Ilishan Remo , Ogun State , Nigeria
| | - M Sulyok
- c Center for Analytical Chemistry, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln) , University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU) , Konrad Lorenz Str. 20, Tulln , Austria
| | - G S Shephard
- d Mycotoxicology and Chemoprevention Research Group, Institute of Biomedical and Microbial Biotechnology , Cape Peninsula University of Technology , PO Box 1906, Bellville , South Africa
| | - R Krska
- c Center for Analytical Chemistry, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln) , University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU) , Konrad Lorenz Str. 20, Tulln , Austria
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19
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Abia WA, Warth B, Ezekiel CN, Sarkanj B, Turner PC, Marko D, Krska R, Sulyok M. Uncommon toxic microbial metabolite patterns in traditionally home-processed maize dish ( fufu ) consumed in rural Cameroon. Food Chem Toxicol 2017; 107:10-19. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2017.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2017] [Revised: 05/25/2017] [Accepted: 06/04/2017] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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20
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Kamala A, Kimanya M, Lachat C, Jacxsens L, Haesaert G, Kolsteren P, Ortiz J, Tiisekwa B, De Meulenaer B. Risk of Exposure to Multiple Mycotoxins from Maize-Based Complementary Foods in Tanzania. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2017; 65:7106-7114. [PMID: 28830150 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.6b03429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
This study estimated exposure to multiple mycotoxins in 249 infants aged between 6 and 12 months in three agro-ecological zones of Tanzania. Maize-based complementary food intakes were estimated using two 24 h dietary recalls. Using @Risk software, probabilistic exposure assessment was conducted by modeling maize intake data (kg/kg body weight/day) with previously determined multiple mycotoxin (except for ochratoxin A (OTA) and zearalenone (ZEA), present in only a few samples) contamination data (μg/kg) in maize. Maize intakes ranged from 0.13 to 185 g/child/day (average = 59 ± 36 g/child/day). The estimated mean exposures were higher for aflatoxins (6-fold), fumonisins (3-fold), and deoxynivalenol (2-fold) than health-based guidance values of 0.017 ng/kg body weight/day, 2 μg/kg body weight/day, and 1 μg/kg body weight/day, respectively. The population at risk of exposures above the limits of health concern ranged from 12% for HT-2 toxin through 35% for deoxynivalenol to 100% for aflatoxins. The exposure varied among the agro-ecological zones. Strategies targeting multiple mycotoxins in maize are urgently needed to minimize exposures in Tanzania.
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Affiliation(s)
- Analice Kamala
- nutriFOODchem unit, Department of Food Safety and Food Quality, partner in Food2Know, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University , Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
- Directorate of Food Safety, Tanzania Food and Drugs Authority , P.O. Box 77150, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
| | - Martin Kimanya
- School of Life Sciences and Bio-Engineering, The Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology (NM-AIST) , P.O. Box 447, Arusha, Tanzania
| | - Carl Lachat
- nutriFOODchem unit, Department of Food Safety and Food Quality, partner in Food2Know, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University , Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Liesbeth Jacxsens
- nutriFOODchem unit, Department of Food Safety and Food Quality, partner in Food2Know, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University , Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Geert Haesaert
- Department of Applied Biosciences, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University , Valentin Vaerwyckweg 1, BE-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Patrick Kolsteren
- nutriFOODchem unit, Department of Food Safety and Food Quality, partner in Food2Know, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University , Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Johana Ortiz
- nutriFOODchem unit, Department of Food Safety and Food Quality, partner in Food2Know, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University , Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
- Department of Biosciences, Faculty of Chemical Sciences, Cuenca University , Av. 12 de Abril s/n Cdla, Universitaria, 010201 Cuenca, Ecuador
| | - Bendantuguka Tiisekwa
- College of Agriculture, Sokoine University of Agriculture , P.O. Box 3005, Morogoro, Tanzania
| | - Bruno De Meulenaer
- nutriFOODchem unit, Department of Food Safety and Food Quality, partner in Food2Know, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University , Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
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21
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Ogara IM, Zarafi AB, Alabi O, Banwo O, Ezekiel CN, Warth B, Sulyok M, Krska R. Mycotoxin patterns in ear rot infected maize: A comprehensive case study in Nigeria. Food Control 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2016.10.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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22
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Chilaka CA, De Boevre M, Atanda OO, De Saeger S. The Status of Fusarium Mycotoxins in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Review of Emerging Trends and Post-Harvest Mitigation Strategies towards Food Control. Toxins (Basel) 2017; 9:E19. [PMID: 28067768 PMCID: PMC5308251 DOI: 10.3390/toxins9010019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2016] [Revised: 12/28/2016] [Accepted: 01/02/2017] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Fusarium fungi are common plant pathogens causing several plant diseases. The presence of these molds in plants exposes crops to toxic secondary metabolites called Fusarium mycotoxins. The most studied Fusarium mycotoxins include fumonisins, zearalenone, and trichothecenes. Studies have highlighted the economic impact of mycotoxins produced by Fusarium. These arrays of toxins have been implicated as the causal agents of wide varieties of toxic health effects in humans and animals ranging from acute to chronic. Global surveillance of Fusarium mycotoxins has recorded significant progress in its control; however, little attention has been paid to Fusarium mycotoxins in sub-Saharan Africa, thus translating to limited occurrence data. In addition, legislative regulation is virtually non-existent. The emergence of modified Fusarium mycotoxins, which may contribute to additional toxic effects, worsens an already precarious situation. This review highlights the status of Fusarium mycotoxins in sub-Saharan Africa, the possible food processing mitigation strategies, as well as future perspectives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cynthia Adaku Chilaka
- Laboratory of Food Analysis, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, Ghent 9000, Belgium.
- Department of Food Science and Technology, College of Applied Food Science and Tourism, Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umuahia-Ikot Ekpene Road, Umudike, Umuahia PMB 7267, Abia State, Nigeria.
| | - Marthe De Boevre
- Laboratory of Food Analysis, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, Ghent 9000, Belgium.
| | - Olusegun Oladimeji Atanda
- Department of Biological Sciences, McPherson University, KM 96 Lagos-Ibadan Expressway, 110117 Seriki Sotayo, Ogun State, Nigeria.
| | - Sarah De Saeger
- Laboratory of Food Analysis, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, Ghent 9000, Belgium.
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Abstract
Alternariais one of the major mycotoxigenic fungal genera with more than 70 reported metabolites.Alternariamycotoxins showed notably toxicity, such as mutagenicity, carcinogenicity, induction of DNA strand break, sphingolipid metabolism disruption, or inhibition of enzymes activity and photophosphorylation. This review reports on the toxicity, stability, metabolism, current analytical methods, and prevalence ofAlternariamycotoxins in food and feed through the most recent published research. Half of the publications were focused on fruits, vegetables, and derived products—mainly tomato and apples—while cereals and cereal by-products represented 38%. The most studied compounds were alternariol, alternariol methyl ether, tentoxin, and tenuazonic acid, but altenuene, altertoxins (I, II, and III), and macrosporin have been gaining importance in recent years. Solid-liquid extraction (50%) with acetonitrile or ethyl acetate was the most common extraction methodology, followed by QuEChERS and dilution-direct injection (both 14%). High- and ultraperformance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry was the predominant determination technique (80%). The highest levels of alternariol and alternariol methyl ether were found in lentils, oilseeds, tomatoes, carrots, juices, wines, and cereals. Tenuazonic acid highest levels were detected in cereals followed by beer, while alternariol, alternariol methyl ether, tenuazonic acid, and tentoxin were found in legumes, nuts, and oilseeds.
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Wu F, Mitchell N. How climate change and regulations can affect the economics of mycotoxins. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2016. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2015.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
In the decades to come, the one factor that will likely have the greatest effect on the economics of the mycotoxin problem is climate change. This article reviews the current state of known science on how the global climate has been changing in recent decades, as well as likely climate change trends in the near future. The article focuses in depth on how climatic variables affect fungal infection and production of specific mycotoxins in food crops, and how near-future climatic changes will shape the prevalence of these mycotoxins in crops in different parts of the world. Because of regulatory limits set on maximum allowable levels of mycotoxins in food and feed, growers will experience economic losses if climatic factors cause certain mycotoxins to become more prevalent. A case study is presented of how maize growers in the United States will experience increased economic losses due to slightly higher aflatoxin levels in maize, even if those levels may still be below regulatory limits. We discuss the overall expected economic impacts of climate change-induced mycotoxin contamination worldwide – not just market-related losses, but also losses to human and animal health and risks to food security. Aflatoxin is the mycotoxin that is most likely to increase under near-future climate scenarios; and thus is likely to pose the greatest amount of economic risk of all the mycotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- F. Wu
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Department of Agricultural, Food, and Resource Economics, Michigan State University, 496 Wilson Rd, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - N.J. Mitchell
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Department of Agricultural, Food, and Resource Economics, Michigan State University, 496 Wilson Rd, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
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Hove M, De Boevre M, Lachat C, Jacxsens L, Nyanga L, De Saeger S. Occurrence and risk assessment of mycotoxins in subsistence farmed maize from Zimbabwe. Food Control 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2016.04.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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Vejdovszky K, Hahn K, Braun D, Warth B, Marko D. Synergistic estrogenic effects of Fusarium and Alternaria mycotoxins in vitro. Arch Toxicol 2016; 91:1447-1460. [PMID: 27401186 PMCID: PMC5316405 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-016-1795-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2016] [Accepted: 07/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
Abstract
Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites formed by various fungal species that are found as natural contaminants in food. This very heterogeneous group of compounds triggers multiple toxic mechanisms, including endocrine disruptive potential. Current risk assessment of mycotoxins, as for most chemical substances, is based on the effects of single compounds. However, concern on a potential enhancement of risks by interactions of single substances in naturally occurring mixtures has greatly increased recently. In this study, the combinatory effects of three mycoestrogens were investigated in detail. This includes the endocrine disruptors zearalenone (ZEN) and α-zearalenol (α-ZEL) produced by Fusarium fungi and alternariol (AOH), a cytotoxic and estrogenic mycotoxin formed by Alternaria species. For evaluation of effects, estrogen-dependent activation of alkaline phosphatase (AlP) and cell proliferation were tested in the adenocarcinoma cell line Ishikawa. The estrogenic potential varied among the single substances. Half maximum effect concentrations (EC50) for AlP activation were evaluated for α-ZEL, ZEN and AOH as 37 pM, 562 pM and 995 nM, respectively. All three mycotoxins were found to act as partial agonists. The majority of binary combinations, even at very low concentrations in the case of α-ZEL, showed strong synergism in the AlP assay. These potentiating phenomena of mycotoxin mixtures highlight the urgent need to incorporate combinatory effects into future risk assessment, especially when endocrine disruptors are involved. To the best of our knowledge, this study presents the first investigation on synergistic effects of mycoestrogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharina Vejdovszky
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Vienna, Waehringer Str. 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Kathrin Hahn
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Vienna, Waehringer Str. 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Dominik Braun
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Vienna, Waehringer Str. 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Benedikt Warth
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Vienna, Waehringer Str. 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Doris Marko
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Vienna, Waehringer Str. 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria.
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27
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Warth B, Braun D, Ezekiel CN, Turner PC, Degen GH, Marko D. Biomonitoring of Mycotoxins in Human Breast Milk: Current State and Future Perspectives. Chem Res Toxicol 2016; 29:1087-97. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.6b00125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Benedikt Warth
- University of Vienna, Faculty of Chemistry, Department
of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Waehringerstraße 38, 1090 Vienna, Austria
- University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Department IFA-Tulln, Konrad-Lorenz-Straße 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Dominik Braun
- University of Vienna, Faculty of Chemistry, Department
of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Waehringerstraße 38, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Chibundu N. Ezekiel
- Department
of Biosciences and Biotechnology, Babcock University, Ilishan Remo, Nigeria
- Partnership
for Aflatoxin Control in Africa, Department of Rural Economy and Agriculture, African Union Commission, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Paul C. Turner
- Maryland
Institute for Environmental Health, School of Public Health, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
| | - Gisela H. Degen
- Leibniz-Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors (IfADo), Ardeystraße 67, D-44139 Dortmund, Germany
| | - Doris Marko
- University of Vienna, Faculty of Chemistry, Department
of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Waehringerstraße 38, 1090 Vienna, Austria
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28
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Development of a multiple immunoaffinity column for simultaneous determination of multiple mycotoxins in feeds using UPLC–MS/MS. Anal Bioanal Chem 2016; 408:6027-36. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-016-9626-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2016] [Revised: 05/01/2016] [Accepted: 05/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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29
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Ferrigo D, Raiola A, Causin R. Fusarium Toxins in Cereals: Occurrence, Legislation, Factors Promoting the Appearance and Their Management. Molecules 2016; 21:E627. [PMID: 27187340 PMCID: PMC6274039 DOI: 10.3390/molecules21050627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 169] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2016] [Revised: 04/11/2016] [Accepted: 05/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Fusarium diseases of small grain cereals and maize cause significant yield losses worldwide. Fusarium infections result in reduced grain yield and contamination with mycotoxins, some of which have a notable impact on human and animal health. Regulations on maximum limits have been established in various countries to protect consumers from the harmful effects of these mycotoxins. Several factors are involved in Fusarium disease and mycotoxin occurrence and among them environmental factors and the agronomic practices have been shown to deeply affect mycotoxin contamination in the field. In the present review particular emphasis will be placed on how environmental conditions and stress factors for the crops can affect Fusarium infection and mycotoxin production, with the aim to provide useful knowledge to develop strategies to prevent mycotoxin accumulation in cereals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Davide Ferrigo
- Department of Land, Environment, Agriculture and Forestry, University of Padua, Campus of Agripolis, Viale Università 16, 35020 Legnaro, Padua, Italy.
| | - Alessandro Raiola
- Department of Land, Environment, Agriculture and Forestry, University of Padua, Campus of Agripolis, Viale Università 16, 35020 Legnaro, Padua, Italy.
| | - Roberto Causin
- Department of Land, Environment, Agriculture and Forestry, University of Padua, Campus of Agripolis, Viale Università 16, 35020 Legnaro, Padua, Italy.
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Alberts JF, van Zyl WH, Gelderblom WCA. Biologically Based Methods for Control of Fumonisin-Producing Fusarium Species and Reduction of the Fumonisins. Front Microbiol 2016; 7:548. [PMID: 27199904 PMCID: PMC4845651 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.00548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2016] [Accepted: 04/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Infection by the fumonisin-producing Fusarium spp. and subsequent fumonisin contamination of maize adversely affect international trade and economy with deleterious effects on human and animal health. In developed countries high standards of the major food suppliers and retailers are upheld and regulatory controls deter the importation and local marketing of fumonisin-contaminated food products. In developing countries regulatory measures are either lacking or poorly enforced, due to food insecurity, resulting in an increased mycotoxin exposure. The lack and poor accessibility of effective and environmentally safe control methods have led to an increased interest in practical and biological alternatives to reduce fumonisin intake. These include the application of natural resources, including plants, microbial cultures, genetic material thereof, or clay minerals pre- and post-harvest. Pre-harvest approaches include breeding for resistant maize cultivars, introduction of biocontrol microorganisms, application of phenolic plant extracts, and expression of antifungal proteins and fumonisin degrading enzymes in transgenic maize cultivars. Post-harvest approaches include the removal of fumonisins by natural clay adsorbents and enzymatic degradation of fumonisins through decarboxylation and deamination by recombinant carboxylesterase and aminotransferase enzymes. Although, the knowledge base on biological control methods has expanded, only a limited number of authorized decontamination products and methods are commercially available. As many studies detailed the use of natural compounds in vitro, concepts in reducing fumonisin contamination should be developed further for application in planta and in the field pre-harvest, post-harvest, and during storage and food-processing. In developed countries an integrated approach, involving good agricultural management practices, hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP) production, and storage management, together with selected biologically based treatments, mild chemical and physical treatments could reduce fumonisin contamination effectively. In rural subsistence farming communities, simple, practical, and culturally acceptable hand-sorting, maize kernel washing, and dehulling intervention methods proved to be effective as a last line of defense for reducing fumonisin exposure. Biologically based methods for control of fumonisin-producing Fusarium spp. and decontamination of the fumonisins could have potential commercial application, while simple and practical intervention strategies could also impact positively on food safety and security, especially in rural populations reliant on maize as a dietary staple.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johanna F. Alberts
- Mycotoxicology and Chemoprevention Research Group, Institute of Biomedical and Microbial Biotechnology, Cape Peninsula University of TechnologyBellville, South Africa
| | - Willem H. van Zyl
- Microbiology Department, Stellenbosch UniversityStellenbosch, South Africa
| | - Wentzel C. A. Gelderblom
- Mycotoxicology and Chemoprevention Research Group, Institute of Biomedical and Microbial Biotechnology, Cape Peninsula University of TechnologyBellville, South Africa
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31
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Hove M, Van Poucke C, Njumbe-Ediage E, Nyanga L, De Saeger S. Review on the natural co-occurrence of AFB1 and FB1 in maize and the combined toxicity of AFB1 and FB1. Food Control 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2015.06.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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32
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Andrade P, Caldas E. Aflatoxins in cereals: worldwide occurrence and dietary risk assessment. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2015. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2014.1847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
The worldwide occurrence of aflatoxins (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2), genotoxic mycotoxins, in raw maize, rice, sorghum and wheat samples collected since the year 2000 was evaluated using published data and occurrence data from the GEMS/Food database (https://extranet.who.int/gemsfood). Dietary risk assessments were conducted using GEMS/Food total aflatoxin occurrence and food consumption data obtained from the 17 Cluster Diets. Risk characterisation arising from aflatoxin exposure was conducted using both cancer risk and margin of exposure (MOE) approaches. A total of 89 publications were retrieved from the literature, reporting data related to 18,097 samples, of which 37.6% were positive for at least one aflatoxin. The total upper bound (UB) mean for all samples analysed was 13.6 μg/kg, and was higher for rice (24.6 μg/kg) and sorghum (25.9 μg/kg). Of data related to the analysis of 4,536 samples reported to GEMS/Food database, 12.7% were positive for at least one aflatoxin. The total UB mean was 1.9 μg/kg, and was higher for rice (2.4 μg/kg) and maize (1.6 μg/kg). Total intakes ranged from 3.0 ng/kg bw/day (Cluster C11) to 17.1 ng/kg bw/day (Cluster C09). On average, the consumption of rice contributed to 41.6% of the total aflatoxin intake in all clusters, followed by wheat (35.4%), maize (21.2%) and sorghum (1.8%). The lowest cancer risk was found in cluster C11 (0.057 cancers/year/105 individuals), and the highest in cluster C09 (0.467 cancers/year/105 individuals). MOE ranged from 56 (C11) to 10 (C09), indicating a potential risk to consumers. These results highlight the need for continuous action by health authorities to decrease aflatoxin contamination in cereals, as they are staple foods in diets worldwide. These actions include the enforcement of code of practices at the national level and the establishment of maximum contamination levels by the Codex System.
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Affiliation(s)
- P.D. Andrade
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Brasília, Campus Darci Ribeiro, 70910-900, Brasília, DF, Brazil
| | - E.D. Caldas
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Brasília, Campus Darci Ribeiro, 70910-900, Brasília, DF, Brazil
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33
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Kamala A, Ortiz J, Kimanya M, Haesaert G, Donoso S, Tiisekwa B, De Meulenaer B. Multiple mycotoxin co-occurrence in maize grown in three agro-ecological zones of Tanzania. Food Control 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2015.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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34
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Matumba L, Van Poucke C, Njumbe Ediage E, De Saeger S. Keeping mycotoxins away from the food: Does the existence of regulations have any impact in Africa? Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2015; 57:1584-1592. [DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2014.993021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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35
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In vitro and in vivo metabolism of ochratoxin A: a comparative study using ultra-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole/time-of-flight hybrid mass spectrometry. Anal Bioanal Chem 2015; 407:3579-89. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-015-8570-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2014] [Revised: 02/04/2015] [Accepted: 02/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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36
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Matumba L, Sulyok M, Monjerezi M, Biswick T, Krska R. Fungal metabolites diversity in maize and associated human dietary exposures relate to micro-climatic patterns in Malawi. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2015. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2014.1773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
This study investigated the diversity of fungal metabolites in maize across four agro-ecological zones of Malawi. A total of 90 maize samples (for human consumption), collected from farmsteads, were analysed for 235 fungal metabolites using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. A total of 65 metabolites were found in the samples. 75% of samples from the hottest agro-ecological zone contained either aflatoxins, fumonisins, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone; or a combination thereof in levels exceeding European Union (EU) maximum levels, whereas the related fraction was only 17% in the cool temperature zone. Aflatoxins, citrinin, 3-nitropropionic acid, monocerin and equisetin were most prevalent and in higher levels in samples from hot agro-ecological zones, whereas deoxynivalenol, nivalenol, zearalenone and aurofusarin were most prevalent in cool agro-ecologies. On the basis of per-capita maize consumption, estimated daily intakes for all samples from hot ecologies were well above the JECFA's provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) of 2.0 μg/kg body weight (bw)/day for fumonisins, whereas the PMTDI of 1.0 μg/kg bw/day for deoxynivalenol was exceeded in relatively more (90%) samples from the cool highlands than the other zones. These results demonstrate the influence of micro-climatic conditions on mycotoxin prevalence patterns and underscores the need for development of agro-ecological specific mycotoxin dietary exposure management strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- L. Matumba
- Department of Agricultural Research Services, Chitedze Station, P.O. Box 158, Lilongwe, Malawi
| | - M. Sulyok
- Department for Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Konrad Lorenz Str. 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - M. Monjerezi
- Chancellor College, Department of Chemistry, University of Malawi, P.O. Box 280, Zomba, Malawi
| | - T. Biswick
- Chancellor College, Department of Chemistry, University of Malawi, P.O. Box 280, Zomba, Malawi
| | - R. Krska
- Department for Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Konrad Lorenz Str. 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
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37
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Berthiller F, Brera C, Crews C, Iha M, Krsha R, Lattanzio V, MacDonald S, Malone R, Maragos C, Solfrizzo M, Stroka J, Whitaker T. Developments in mycotoxin analysis: an update for 2013-2014. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2015. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2014.1840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
This review highlights developments in the determination of mycotoxins over a period between mid-2013 and mid-2014. It continues in the format of the previous articles of this series, emphasising on analytical methods to determine aflatoxins, Alternaria toxins, ergot alkaloids, fumonisins, ochratoxins, patulin, trichothecenes and zearalenone. The importance of proper sampling and sample preparation is briefly addressed in a dedicated section, while another chapter summarises new methods used to analyse botanicals and spices. As LC-MS/MS instruments are becoming more and more widespread in the determination of multiple classes of mycotoxins, another section is focusing on such newly developed multi-mycotoxin methods. While the wealth of published methods during the 12 month time span makes it impossible to cover every single one, this exhaustive review nevertheless aims to address and briefly discuss the most important developments and trends.
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Affiliation(s)
- F. Berthiller
- Department for Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), Christian Doppler Laboratory for Mycotoxin Metabolism and Center for Analytical Chemistry, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Konrad Lorenz Str. 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - C. Brera
- Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety — GMO and Mycotoxins Unit, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - C. Crews
- The Food and Environment Research Agency, Sand Hutton, York YO41 1LZ, United Kingdom
| | - M.H. Iha
- Laboratório I de Ribeiro Preto, Instituto Adolfo Lutz, CEP 14085-410, Ribeiro Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - R. Krsha
- Department for Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), Christian Doppler Laboratory for Mycotoxin Metabolism and Center for Analytical Chemistry, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Konrad Lorenz Str. 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - V.M.T. Lattanzio
- National Research Council, Institute of Sciences of Food Production, Via Amendola, 122/O, 70126 Bari, Italy
| | - S. MacDonald
- The Food and Environment Research Agency, Sand Hutton, York YO41 1LZ, United Kingdom
| | - R.J. Malone
- Trilogy Analytical Laboratory, 870 Vossbrink Dr, Washington, MO 63090, USA
| | - C. Maragos
- USDA, ARS National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, 1815 N University St, Peoria, IL 61604, USA
| | - M. Solfrizzo
- National Research Council, Institute of Sciences of Food Production, Via Amendola, 122/O, 70126 Bari, Italy
| | - J. Stroka
- European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Reference Materials and Measurements (IRMM), Retieseweg 111, 2440 Geel, Belgium
| | - T.B. Whitaker
- Biological and Agricultural Engineering Department, N.C. State University, Raleigh, NC 27695-7625, USA
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38
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Straumfors A, Uhlig S, Eriksen G, Heldal K, Eduard W, Krska R, Sulyok M. Mycotoxins and other fungal metabolites in grain dust from Norwegian grain elevators and compound feed mills. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2015. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2014.1799] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Employees at grain elevators and compound feed mills are exposed to large amounts of grain dust during work, frequently leading to airway symptoms and asthma. Although the exposure to grain dust, microorganisms, β-1→3-glucans and endotoxins has been extensively studied, the focus on the mycotoxin content of grain dust has previously been limited to one or few mycotoxins. Our objective was therefore to screen settled grain dust from grain elevators and compound feed mills for fungal metabolites by LC/MS-MS and explore differences between work places, seasons and climatic zones. Seventy fungal metabolites and two bacterial metabolites were detected. Trichothecenes, depsipeptides, ergot alkaloids, and other metabolites from Fusarium, Claviceps, Alternaria, Penicillium, Aspergillus, and other fungi were represented. The prevalence of individual metabolites was highly variable, and the concentration of each metabolite varied considerably between samples. The prevalence and concentration of most metabolites were higher in grain elevators compared to compound feed mills. Differences between seasons and climatic zones were inconclusive. All samples contained multiple mycotoxins, indicating a highly complex pattern of possible inhalational exposure. A mean exposure of 20 ng/m3 of fungal metabolites was estimated, whereas a worst case scenario estimated as much as 10 ?g/m3. Although many of these compounds may be linked to toxicological and immunological effects through experimental or epidemiological studies, it still remains to be determined whether the detected concentrations implicate adverse health outcomes when inhaled.
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Affiliation(s)
- A. Straumfors
- Department of Chemical and Biological Work Environment, National Institute of Occupational Health, P.O. Box 8149 Dep., 0033 Oslo, Norway
| | - S. Uhlig
- Department of Chemical and Biological Work Environment, National Institute of Occupational Health, P.O. Box 8149 Dep., 0033 Oslo, Norway
- Section for Chemistry and Toxicology, Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Ullevålsveien 68, 0454 Oslo, Norway
| | - G.S. Eriksen
- Section for Chemistry and Toxicology, Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Ullevålsveien 68, 0454 Oslo, Norway
| | - K.K. Heldal
- Department of Chemical and Biological Work Environment, National Institute of Occupational Health, P.O. Box 8149 Dep., 0033 Oslo, Norway
| | - W. Eduard
- Department of Chemical and Biological Work Environment, National Institute of Occupational Health, P.O. Box 8149 Dep., 0033 Oslo, Norway
| | - R. Krska
- Centre for Analytical Chemistry, Department IFA, Tulln, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU), Konrad-Lorenz-Str. 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - M. Sulyok
- Centre for Analytical Chemistry, Department IFA, Tulln, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU), Konrad-Lorenz-Str. 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
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39
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Sulyok M, Beed F, Boni S, Abass A, Mukunzi A, Krska R. Quantitation of multiple mycotoxins and cyanogenic glucosides in cassava samples from Tanzania and Rwanda by an LC-MS/MS-based multi-toxin method. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2014; 32:488-502. [PMID: 25350522 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2014.975752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
A multi-mycotoxin method based on liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) was used for a mycotoxin survey in 627 samples of processed cassava collected from different districts across Tanzania and Rwanda after the method performance for this matrix had been determined. Matrix effects as well as extraction efficiencies were found to be similar to most other previously investigated matrices with the exception of distinct matrix effects in the negative ionisation mode for early eluting compounds. Limits of detection were far below the regulatory limits set in the European Union for other types of commodities. Relative standard deviations were generally lower than 10% as determined by replicates spiked on two concentration levels. The sample-to-sample variation of the apparent recoveries was determined for 15 individually spiked samples during three different analytical sequences. The related standard deviation was found to be lower than 15% for most of the investigated compounds, thus confirming the applicability of the method for quantitative analysis. The occurrence of regulated mycotoxins was lower than 10% (with the exception of zearalenone) and the related limits were exceeded only in few samples, which suggests that cassava is a comparatively safe commodity as regards mycotoxins. The most prevalent fungal metabolites were emodin, kojic acid, beauvericin, tryptophol, 3-nitropropionic acid, equisetin, alternariol methylether, monocerin, brevianamide F, tenuazonic acid, zearalenone, chrysophanol, monilifomin, enniatins, apicidin and macrosporin. The related concentrations exceeded 1 mg kg(-1) only in few cases. However, extremely high levels of cyanogenic plant toxins, which had been previously added to the method, were observed in few samples, pointing out the need for improved post-harvest management to decrease the levels of these compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Sulyok
- a Department for Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln) , University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU) , Tulln , Austria
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40
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Liu J, Hu Y, Zhu G, Zhou X, Jia L, Zhang T. Highly sensitive detection of zearalenone in feed samples using competitive surface-enhanced Raman scattering immunoassay. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2014; 62:8325-8332. [PMID: 25052032 DOI: 10.1021/jf503191e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Accurate and quantitative analysis of mycotoxin (such as zearalenone) is particularly imperative in the field of food safety and animal husbandry. Here, we develop a sensitive and specific method for zearalenone detection using competitive surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) immunoassay. In this assay, a functional gold nanoparticle was labeled with the Raman reporter and the zearalenone antibody, and a modified substrate was assembled with the zearalenone-bovine serum albumin. With the addition of free zearalenone, the competitive immune reaction between free zearalenone and zearalenone-bovine serum albumin was initiated for binding with zearalenone antibody labeled on gold nanoparticle, resulting in the change of SERS signal intensity. The proposed method exhibits high sensitivity with a detection limit of 1 pg/mL and a wide dynamic range from 1 to 1000 pg/mL. Furthermore, this method can be further applied to analyze the multiple natural feed samples contaminated with zearalenone, holding great potential for real sample detection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianzhi Liu
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Laser Life Science & Institute of Laser Life Science, College of Biophotonics, South China Normal University , Guangzhou 510631, People's Republic of China
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41
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Fungal and bacterial metabolites of stored maize (Zea mays, L.) from five agro-ecological zones of Nigeria. Mycotoxin Res 2014; 30:89-102. [PMID: 24643458 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-014-0194-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2013] [Revised: 03/03/2014] [Accepted: 03/04/2014] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Seventy composite samples of maize grains stored in five agro-ecological zones (AEZs) of Nigeria where maize is predominantly produced were evaluated for the presence of microbial metabolites with the LC-MS/MS technique. The possible relationships between the storage structures and levels of mycotoxin contamination were also evaluated. Sixty-two fungal and four bacterial metabolites were extracted from the grains, 54 of which have not been documented for maize in Nigeria. Aflatoxin B1 and fumonisin B1 were quantified in 67.1 and 92.9% of the grains, while 64.1 and 57.1% exceeded the European Union Commission maximum acceptable limit (MAL) for aflatoxin B1 and fumonisins, respectively. The concentration of deoxynivalenol was, however, below the MAL with occurrence levels of 100 and 10% for its masked metabolite, deoxynivalenol glucoside. The bacterial metabolites had low concentrations and were not a source of concern. The storage structures significantly correlated positively or negatively (p < 0.01 and p < 0.05), respectively with the levels of grain contamination. Consumption of maize grains, a staple Nigerian diet, may therefore expose the population to mycotoxin contamination. There is need for an immediate action plan for mycotoxin mitigation in Nigeria, especially in the Derived Savannah zone, in view of the economic and public health importance of the toxins.
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42
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Solfrizzo M, Gambacorta L, Visconti A. Assessment of multi-mycotoxin exposure in southern Italy by urinary multi-biomarker determination. Toxins (Basel) 2014; 6:523-38. [PMID: 24476712 PMCID: PMC3942749 DOI: 10.3390/toxins6020523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 150] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2013] [Revised: 01/13/2014] [Accepted: 01/21/2014] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Human exposure assessment to deoxynivalenol (DON), aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), fumonisin B1 (FB1), zearalenone (ZEA) and ochratoxin A (OTA) can be performed by measuring their urinary biomarkers. Suitable biomarkers of exposure for these mycotoxins are DON + de-epoxydeoxynivalenol (DOM-1), aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), FB1, ZEA + α-zearalenol (α-ZOL) + β-zearalenol (β-ZOL) and OTA, respectively. An UPLC-MS/MS multi-biomarker method was used to detect and measure incidence and levels of these biomarkers in urine samples of 52 volunteers resident in Apulia region in Southern Italy. The presence of ZEA + ZOLs, OTA, DON, FB1 and AFM1 were detected in 100%, 100%, 96%, 56% and 6%, of samples, respectively. All samples contained biomarkers of two or more mycotoxins. The mean concentrations of biomarkers ranged from 0.055 ng/mL (FB1) to 11.89 ng/mL (DON). Urinary biomarker concentrations were used to estimate human exposure to multiple mycotoxin. For OTA and DON, 94% and 40% of volunteers, respectively exceeded the tolerable daily intake (TDI) for these mycotoxins. The estimated human exposure to FB1 and ZEA was largely below the TDI for these mycotoxins for all volunteers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michele Solfrizzo
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production (ISPA), National Research Council (CNR), Bari 70126, Italy.
| | - Lucia Gambacorta
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production (ISPA), National Research Council (CNR), Bari 70126, Italy.
| | - Angelo Visconti
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production (ISPA), National Research Council (CNR), Bari 70126, Italy.
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43
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Shephard G, Gelderblom W. Rapid testing and regulating for mycotoxin concerns: a perspective from developing countries. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2014. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2013.1682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Among the many hurdles faced by developing countries, food safety with respect to mycotoxin contamination has frequently been side-lined with few countries having regulations and with poor enforcement where they do exist. Whereas commodity exporters may have the resources for engaging commercial accredited laboratories, the greatest challenge is found in rural, predominantly subsistence or smallholder farms, where conventional food surveillance is lacking. Rapid methods, designed for use in field conditions, where electricity is lacking or unreliable, can offer some solution to these problems. The World Food Programme's ‘Blue Box’ is an example of how technology can be adapted for these rural areas. The recent development of temperature stable aptamers and smart mobile phone technology may further enhance efforts to provide food safety in these areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- G.S. Shephard
- MRC Centre for Molecular and Cellular Biology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Stellenbosch, P.O. Box 19063, Tygerberg 7505, South Africa
| | - W.C.A. Gelderblom
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Stellenbosch, Private Bag X1, Matieland 7602, South Africa
- Institute of Biomedical and Microbial Biotechnology, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, P.O. Box 1906, Bellville 7535, South Africa
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