Structural characterization and biological activities of a novel polysaccharide from cultured Cordyceps militaris and its sulfated derivative

A Reverse Thinking Based on Partially Methylated Aldononitrile Acetates to Analyze Glycoside Linkages of Polysaccharides Using Liquid Chromatography-Multiple Reaction Monitoring Mass Spectrometry

Glycoside linkage analyses of medicine and food homologous plant polysaccharides have always been a key point and a difficulty of structural characterization. The gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) method is one of the commonly used traditional techniques to determine glycoside linkages via partially methylated alditol acetates and aldononitrile acetates (PMAAs and PMANs). Due to the simplicity of derivatization and the highly structural asymmetry of PMANs, reverse thinking is proposed using liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-multiple reaction monitoring mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MRM-MS) for the first time to directly determine the neutral and acidic glycosyl linkages of polysaccharides. The complete characterization of glycoside linkages deduced from PMANs was achieved using a combination of tR values, characteristic MRM ion pairs, diagnostic ESI+-MS/MS fragmentation ions (DFIs), and optimal collision energy (OCE). The DFI and OCE parameters were confirmed to be effective for the auxiliary discrimination of some isomers of the PMANs. The practicality of LC-ESI+-MRM-MS was further verified by analyzing the glycoside linkages of polysaccharides in five medicine and food homologous plants. This method can serve as an alternative to GC-MS for the simultaneous determination of neutral and acidic glycosyl linkages in polysaccharides.

Structural Elucidation and Anti-Tumor Activity of a Polysaccharide (CP2-S) from Cordyceps militaris Fruit Bodies

A polysaccharide (CP2-S), consisting of glucose with a weight average molecular weight of 5.9 × 106, was purified from the fruit bodies of Cordyceps militaris. In this work, the corresponding structure and anti-tumor activity in vivo were investigated. Methylation and NMR analysis revealed that CP2-S was composed of a →4)-α-D-Glcp-(1→ backbone with partial substitution occurring at O-6 by T-linked α-D-Glcp in every ten residues, which has not been reported in previous reports. In vivo anti-tumor experiments showed that CP2-S could inhibit the growth of Lewis lung carcinoma in mice. Tumor inhibition rates were 17.8%, 24.5%, and 29.5% at dosages of 12.5, 50, and 100 mg/kg/d, respectively. Compared with the cisplatin group, mice treated with CP2-S exhibited a significant increase in spleen index (increased 22.7-42.4%) and thymus index (increased 47.7-36.8%). Additionally, serum levels of IgM and IgG in tumor-bearing mice increased by approximately 6.11~10.75-folds and 1.31~1.38-folds, respectively. These findings prove that CP2-S significantly inhibited the growth of Lewis lung carcinoma through immune-enhancing activity in mice.

Structurally Modified Polysaccharides: Physicochemical Properties, Biological Activities, Structure-Activity Relationship, and Applications

Polysaccharides are an important class of biomolecules derived from several sources. However, the inherent structure of polysaccharides prevents them from exhibiting favorable physicochemical properties, which restricts their development in agriculture, industry, food, and biomedicine. This paper systematically summarizes the changes in the primary and advanced structures of modified polysaccharides, and focuses on the effects of various modification methods on the hydrophobicity, rheological properties, emulsifying properties, antioxidant activity, hypoglycemic, and hypolipidemic activities of polysaccharides. Then there is a list the applications of modified polysaccharides in treating heavy metal pollutants, purifying water resources, improving beverage stability and bread quality, and precisely delivering the drug. When summarized and reviewed, the information above can shed further light on the relationship between polysaccharide structure and function. Determining the structure-activity relationship provides a scientific basis for the direction of molecular modifications of polysaccharides.

Application of atomic force microscopy in the characterization of fruits and vegetables and associated substances toward improvement in quality, preservation, and processing: nanoscale structure and mechanics perspectives

Fruits and vegetables are essential horticultural crops for humans. The quality of fruits and vegetables is critical in determining their nutritional value and edibility, which are decisive to their commercial value. Besides, it is also important to understand the changes in key substances involved in the preservation and processing of fruits and vegetables. Atomic force microscopy (AFM), a powerful technique for investigating biological surfaces, has been widely used to characterize the quality of fruits and vegetables and the substances involved in their preservation and processing from the perspective of nanoscale structure and mechanics. This review summarizes the applications of AFM to investigate the texture, appearance, and nutrients of fruits and vegetables based on structural imaging and force measurements. Additionally, the review highlights the application of AFM in characterizing the morphological and mechanical properties of nanomaterials involved in preserving and processing fruits and vegetables, including films and coatings for preservation, bioactive compounds for processing purposes, nanofiltration membrane for concentration, and nanoencapsulation for delivery of bioactive compounds. Furthermore, the strengths and weaknesses of AFM for characterizing the quality of fruits and vegetables and the substances involved in their preservation and processing are examined, followed by a discussion on the prospects of AFM in this field.

A novel heteropolysaccharide isolated from custard apple pulp and its immunomodulatory activity in mouse macrophages and dendritic cells

In this study, a novel heteropolysaccharide (ASPA80-1) with an average molecular weight of 5.48 × 104 Da was isolated and structurally elucidated from custard apple pulp (Annona squamosa) through DEAE-cellulose, Sephadex G-100 and Sephacryl S-300 HR chromatography and spectral analysis. ASPA80-1 is a water-soluble polysaccharide and it is a polymer consisting of predominant amounts of (1 → 3)-linked-L-arabinose (Ara) residues, small amounts of (1 → 6)-linked-D-galactose (Gal), (1 → 3,5)-linked-L-arabinose (Ara) residues and terminal linked-L-arabinose (Ara) residues, trace amount of (1 → 4)-linked-D-glucose (Glc) residues and (1 → 2)-linked-L-rhamnose (Rham) residues. ASPA80-1 showed significant effect on antigen-presenting cells (APCs) activation. On the one hand, ASPA80-1 activated RAW264.7 macrophage cells by inducing morphology change, enhancing phagocytic ability, increasing nitric oxide (NO) secretion and promoting expression of major histocompatibility complex class II (MHC II) and cluster of differentiation 86 (CD 86). On the other hand, ASPA80-1 promoted the maturation of dendritic cells (DCs) by inducing longer dendrites, decreasing phagocytic ability and increasing MHC II and CD86 expression. Furthermore, mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) signaling pathways were activated after the intervention of ASPA80-1 on RAW264.7 cells or DCs. Thus, the novel heteropolysaccharide ASPA80-1 has the potential to be used as an immunoenhancing component in functional foods.

Structure Characterization, In Vitro Antioxidant and Anti-Tumor Activity of Sulfated Polysaccharide from Siraitia grosvenorii

From Siraitia grosvenorii, a natural polysaccharide named SGP-1 was discovered, and its purity was determined to be 96.83%. Its structure is a glucan with 4-, 6- and 4,6-linked glucose units. In this paper, the sulfated derivative S-SGP of SGP-1 was prepared by the chlorosulfonic acid method. The sulfated derivatives were analyzed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), gel permeation chromatography (GPC), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The degree of substitution (DS) of the polysaccharide is 0.62, and the weight average molecular weight (Mw) is 1.34 × 10⁴ Da. While retaining the morphological characteristics of polysaccharides, S-SGP appeared a large number of spherical structures and strong intermolecular forces. The in vitro activity study of S-SGP showed that the sulfated derivatives had the ability to scavenge DPPH radicals, hydroxyl radicals and superoxide anions, and the scavenging power tended to increase with the increase in polysaccharide concentration. It can inhibit the growth of human hepatoma cells (HepG2), human breast cancer cells (MDA-MB-231) and human non-small cell lung cancer cells (A549) in vitro. In addition, the treatment of A549 cells with sulfuric acid derivatives can decrease the mitochondrial membrane potential, induce apoptosis, and alter the expression of apoptosis-related mRNA and protein.

A Natural Glucan from Black Bean Inhibits Cancer Cell Proliferation via PI3K-Akt and MAPK Pathway

A natural α-1,6-glucan named BBWPW was identified from black beans. Cell viability assay showed that BBWPW inhibited the proliferation of different cancer cells, especially HeLa cells. Flow cytometry analysis indicated that BBWPW suppressed the HeLa cell cycle in the G2/M phase. Consistently, RT-PCR experiments displayed that BBWPW significantly impacts the expression of four marker genes related to the G2/M phase, including p21, CDK1, Cyclin B1, and Survivin. To explore the molecular mechanism of BBWPW to induce cell cycle arrest, a transcriptome-based target inference approach was utilized to predict the potential upstream pathways of BBWPW and it was found that the PI3K-Akt and MAPK signal pathways had the potential to mediate the effects of BBWPW on the cell cycle. Further experimental tests confirmed that BBWPW increased the expression of BAD and AKT and decreased the expression of mTOR and MKK3. These results suggested that BBWPW could regulate the PI3K-Akt and MAPK pathways to induce cell cycle arrest and ultimately inhibit the proliferation of HeLa cells, providing the potential of the black bean glucan to be a natural anticancer drug.

Comparison of chemical property and in vitro digestion behavior of polysaccharides from Auricularia polytricha mycelium and fruit body

The antioxidant activity of Auricularia polytricha is associated tightly with its polysaccharide concentration, molar mass and architecture. This study aims to explore the differences in structural and physicochemical traits and oxidation resistances between the polysaccharides from fruit body (ABPs) and mycelial (IAPs) of Auricularia polytricha. The results showed that ABPs and IAPs were constituted by glucose, glucuronic acid, galactose and mannose. However, the molecular weight distribution of IAPs (3.22 × 10⁴ Da (52.73%) and 1.95 × 10⁶ Da (24.71%)) was wider than that of ABPs (5.4 × 10⁶ Da (95.77%)). The shear-thinning performance and viscoelastic behavior of both IAPs and ABPs are representative. IAPs are scattered in sheets, with folds and holes, and have a triple helix structure. ABPs are compact in structure and clear in texture. The main functional groups and thermal stability of both polysaccharides were similar. Concerning the in-vitro oxidation resistance, both of the studied polysaccharides exhibited the potent potential to scavenge hydroxyl radicals (IC₅₀ = 3.37 ± 0.32 and 6.56 ± 0.54 mg/mL, respectively) and 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radicals (IC₅₀ = 0.89 ± 0.22 and 1.48 ± 0.63 mg/mL, respectively), as well as the moderate reduction power. In addition, IAPs and ABPs were both completely undigested in simulated contexts of saliva, small intestine and stomach, and the two polysaccharide types maintained high DPPH and hydroxyl radical scavenging activities. DDPH scavenging rate during digestion was positively correlated with uronic acid content. To conclude, this study suggests the potential of IAPs as an equivalent alternative to ABPs.

Extraction optimization, structure features, and bioactivities of two polysaccharides from Corydalis decumbens

Two polysaccharides (CPS1 and CPW2) from Corydalis decumbens were obtained to develop insights into natural medical resources. Optimal extraction conditions of total sugars were researched using the method of response surface methodology, polysaccharides were purified using a combination of ethanol precipitation and anion-exchange chromatography, and structure features were analyzed by scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and Congo-red assay. The bioactivities were estimated in terms of antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. Total sugars were extracted with an experimental yield of 32.74% under optimum conditions. CPS1 and CPW2 were purified with yields of 12.01% and 8.23%, respectively. CPS1 was a unique polysaccharide with a molecular weight (Mw) of 360 kDa and consisted of glucose, galactose, mannose, and arabinose in a ratio of 4.9:2.0:1:1.9, and CPW2 was composed of glucose with the Mw of 550 kDa. CPS1 possessed a four-helix conformation, and CPW2 was identified as a linear molecule without branched and entangled chains. The mRNA expressions of TNF-α (71.80%), IL-1β (56.55%), IL-6 (43.98%), and COX-2 (91.88%) in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells were significantly inhibited by 75 μg/mL CPS1 (P < 0.0001), while CPW2 showed lower inhibitory effects than CPS1. Compared with CPW2, CPS1 showed stronger scavenging abilities for hydroxyl (EC50 = 520.46 μg/mL), ABTS (EC50 = 533.99 μg/mL), and superoxide (EC50 = 1512.06 μg/mL) radicals. CPS1 with four-helix conformation exhibited more outstanding bioactivities than CPW2 without entangled chains.

Isolation, structure elucidation, and biological activity of polysaccharides from Saussurea involucrata

The optimum extraction condition for the Saussurea involucrata polysaccharide (SIP) was determined to be a temperature of 80 °C, time 2 h, and a liquid-solid ratio of 30 mL/g with a yield of 11.37 %. An acidic homogenous polysaccharide, namely SIP-II was isolated from Saussurea involucrate through anion exchange and gel permeation column chromatography. The structure of the SIP-II was elucidated through the combination of HPLC, GC-MS, IC, peroxide oxidation, smith degradation, methylation, NMR analysis, it was mainly composed of arabinose, rhamnose, galactose, galacturonic acid, and glucose with the molar ratio of 19.85:20.30: 27.12:11.95:8.69 with a molecular weight of 237,570 Da. The glycosidic linkages of SIP-II mainly composed of →1)-α-L-Rhap-(2→, T-Araf, →1)-β-D-GalpA-(4→, →1)-β-D-Galp-(3,6→, →1)-β-D-Galp-(6→, →1)-α-L-Rhap-(2,4→, T-Galp, and →1)-α-L-Araf-(5→. Meanwhile, the structures were characterized through extensive analysis of UV, FT-IR, SEM-EDX, CD, XRD, and TG. SIP-II possessed a remarkable anti-inflammatory activity by effectively inhibiting the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and inflammation-related mediators in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages, and the anti-inflammatory response of SIP-II might be attributed to the regulation of the NF-κB, MAPK and JAK/STAT pathways. The results showed that polysaccharides from Saussurea involucrate could be a potential ingredient in the functional food and pharmaceutical industry.

Structural characterization of a water-soluble and antimicrobial β-glucan secreted by Rhizobium pusense

In this study, a bacterium with the ability to extracellularly produce a water-soluble polysaccharide (with high molecular mass of 743 kDa) was obtained from saline soils. This strain named as ZB01 was identified as Rhizobium punsense by 16S rRNA sequence analysis. The monomer composition and structure of extracellular polysaccharides were investigated by high-performance anion-exchange chromatography-pulsed amperometric detector, Fourier-transform infrared, methylation and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy analysis. In addition, the morphological characterization of extracellular polysaccharides was performed by scanning electron microscopy analysis. As a result, the polysaccharide is found to be a novel water-soluble type of glucan most likely consisting of repeating two β-d-Glcp-(1 → 3) and one α-d-Glcp-(1 → 3). Furthermore, it showed pronounced antimicrobial effects against Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis, suggesting it has the potential to be used as a natural antibacterial agent in the future.

Metabolites and Their Bioactivities from the Genus Cordyceps

The Cordyceps genus is a group of ascomycete parasitic fungi, and all known species of this genus are endoparasites; they mainly feed on insects or arthropods and a few feed on other fungi. Fungi of this genus have evolved highly specific and complex mechanisms to escape their host’s immune system and coordinate their life cycle coefficients with those of their hosts for survival and reproduction; this mechanism has led to the production of distinctive metabolites in response to the host’s defenses. Herein, we review approximately 131 metabolites discovered in the genus Cordyceps (including mycelium, fruiting bodies and fungal complexes) in the past 15 years, which can be used as an important source for new drug research and development. We summarize chemical structures, bioactivity and the potential application of these natural metabolites. We have excluded some reports that originally belonged to Cordyceps, but whose taxonomic attribution is no longer the Cordyceps genus. This can and will serve as a resource for drug discovery.

Structural Elucidation and Activities of Cordyceps militaris-Derived Polysaccharides: A Review

Cordyceps militaris is a parasitic edible fungus and has been used as tonics for centuries. Polysaccharides are a major water-soluble component of C. militaris. Recently, C. militaris-derived polysaccharides have been given much attention due to their various actions including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, anti-hyperlipidemic, anti-diabetic, anti-atherosclerotic, and immunomodulatory effects. These bioactivities are determined by the various structural characteristics of polysaccharides including monosaccharide composition, molecular weight, and glycosidic linkage. The widespread use of advanced analytical analysis tools has greatly improved the elucidation of the structural characteristics of C. militaris-derived polysaccharides. However, the methods for polysaccharide structural characterization and the latest findings related to C. militaris-derived polysaccharides, especially the potential structure-activity relationship, have not been well-summarized in recent reviews of the literature. This review will discuss the methods used in the elucidation of the structure of polysaccharides and structural characteristics as well as the signaling pathways modulated by C. militaris-derived polysaccharides. This article provides information useful for the development of C. militaris-derived polysaccharides as well as for investigating other medicinal polysaccharides.

Structural Determination of Pectins by Spectroscopy Methods

Plant polysaccharides include pectins, which are responsible for an important role in plant physiology and are part of the plant cell wall. These compounds are known as gelling and stabilizing agents, which are widely used in the food industry. The scientific literature lacks precise information on the spectroscopy of apple pectin and citrus pectin. Therefore, the aim of this work was to test and compare the physicochemical properties of these compounds. The curves of FT-IR, NMR, ESI-MS, and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) of pectin samples were measured and discussed. The analysis of the spectroscopic results confirms that the isolated pectins using various enzymes (xylanase and cellulase) have a structure similar to the commercially available pectin (PectaSol-C), with a noticeable change in morphology. These characteristics are helpful for further basic research and application.

The Quality and Functional Improvement of Retorted Korean Ginseng Chicken Soup (Samgyetang) by Enzymolysis Pre-Treatment with Cordyceps militaris Mushroom Extract

This study aimed to investigate the functional and quality improvement of retorted Korean ginseng chicken soup that was hydrolyzed using a single extract from Cordyceps militaris (CM) mushroom, or in combination with bromelain, flavorzyme, or a mix of both. A total of 36 fat-trimmed breast meat from commercial broilers were hydrolyzed with one of six treatments, (1) flavorzyme as a positive control (PC), (2) no addition as negative control (NC), (3) crude CM extract (CME), CM extract prepared with either (4) bromelain (CMB), (5) flavorzyme (CMF), or (6) bromelain:flavorzyme mixture (CMBF) in a water bath at 55 °C for 2.5 h, and subsequently retorted at 121.1 °C, 147.1 kPa for 1 h. The highest antioxidant activity was observed in the CMB treatment (40.32%), followed by CMBF (34.20%), and CME (32.97%). The suppression of malondialdehyde ranged between 28 and 83%. The water-holding-capacity of the treated samples increased, ranging between 59.69 and 62.98%, and significantly tenderized the meat. The shear force decreased from 23.05 N in negative control to 11.67 N in the CMB samples. The predominant nucleotides across the samples were 5′-IMP and hypoxanthine, and the lowest was adenosine. The intensification of the taste properties was due to the increase of umami substances, both by 5′-nucleotides (5′-IMP, 5′-GMP) and free amino acids (FAAs), whereas the highest improvement was observed in the CMB group. Therefore, the hydrolyzation of Korean ginseng chicken soup using CM extract, prepared using bromelain, improves functional and quality profiles.

Antioxidant Activity of Mushroom Extracts/Polysaccharides-Their Antiviral Properties and Plausible AntiCOVID-19 Properties

Mushrooms have been long accomplished for their medicinal properties and bioactivity. The ancients benefitted from it, even before they knew that there was more to mushrooms than just the culinary aspect. This review addresses the benefits of mushrooms and specifically dwells on the positive attributes of mushroom polysaccharides. Compared to mushroom research, mushroom polysaccharide-based reports were observed to be significantly less frequent. This review highlights the antioxidant properties and mechanisms as well as consolidates the various antioxidant applications of mushroom polysaccharides. The biological activities of mushroom polysaccharides are also briefly discussed. The antiviral properties of mushrooms and their polysaccharides have been reviewed and presented. The lacunae in implementation of the antiviral benefits into antiCOVID-19 pursuits has been highlighted. The need for expansion and extrapolation of the knowns of mushrooms to extend into the unknown is emphasized.

Protective rules of natural antioxidants against gamma-induced damage-A review

Phytochemicals accessible in food have demonstrated efficiency against impairment by gamma radiation. The review presented here is an attempt to show the pharmacological outline of the activity of the natural antioxidants and its primary action of molecular mechanism against the damage induced by gamma rays. This research focused on the results of the in vitro dosage of natural antioxidants relationship, and on the correlation of this information with the statistical variables. Moreover, it deliberated the natural compounds which could decrease the unwelcome impacts of gamma radiation and safeguard biological systems from radiation-stimulated genotoxicity. The outcomes indicated that natural compounds can be utilized as an adjunct to orthodox radiotherapy and cultivate it as an effectual drug for the clinical administration of ailments.

Tenderness-related index and proteolytic enzyme response to the marination of spent hen breast by a protease extracted from Cordyceps militaris mushroom

Objective

The effects of a crude protease extracted from Cordyceps militaris (CM) mushrooms on the postmortem tenderization mechanism and quality improvement in spent hen breast were investigated.

Methods

Different percentages of the crude protease extracted from CM mushrooms were introduced to spent hen breast via spray marination, and its effects on tenderness-related indexes and proteolytic enzymes were compared to papain.

Results

The results indicated that there was a possible improvement by the protease extracted from CM mushroom through the upregulation of endogenous proteolytic enzymes involved in the calpain system, cathepsin-B, and caspase-3 coupled with its nucleotide-specific impact. However, the effect of the protease extracted from CM mushroom was likely dose-dependent, with significant improvements at a minimum level of 4%. Marination with the protease extracted from CM mushroom at this level led to increased protein solubility and an increased myofibrillar fragmentation index. The sarcoplasmic protein and collagen contents seemed to be less affected by the protease extracted from CM mushroom, indicating that substrate hydrolysis was limited to myofibrillar protein. Furthermore the protease extracted from CM mushroom intensified meat product taste due to increasing the inosinic acid content, a highly effective salt that provides umami taste.

Conclusion

The synergistic results of the proteolytic activity and nucleotide-specific effects following treatments suggest that the exogenous protease derived from CM mushroom has the potential for improving the texture of spent hen breast.

Purification and characterization of a novel mixed-linkage α,β-d-glucan from Arca subcrenata and its immunoregulatory activity

Arca subcrenata Lischke is a seafood with high nutritional value. In this study, we purified and characterized a novel water-soluble polysaccharide (ASPG-2) from Arca subcrenata with significant immunoregulatory effects and no apparent cell toxicity. ASPG-2 is a class of mixed-linkage α,β-d-glucan backbones with α-linked side chains with a molecular weight of 4.39 × 10⁵ Da. Its structure was characterized as a repeating unit consisting of (1 → 3)-β-d-Glcp, (1 → 4)-α-d-Glcp, (1 → 4,6)-α-d-Glcp and (1 → 6)-α-d-Glcp. Using mouse RAW264.7 macrophages, we demonstrated that ASPG-2 exerted marked immunoregulatory effects by promoting the secretion of NO and increasing the phagocytosis of RAW264.7 cells in vitro. Moreover, flow cytometry analysis of the expression of the cell surface molecule CD86 revealed that ASPG-2 could polarize RAW264.7 cells into the M1 type. The immunomodulatory mechanism of ASPG-2 in macrophages was associated with the activation of the TLR4-MAPK/Akt-NF-κB signalling pathways. These results indicated that ASPG-2 might be researched and developed as a potential immunomodulatory agent or health product from marine organisms.

Cordyceps spp.: A Review on Its Immune-Stimulatory and Other Biological Potentials

In recent decades, interest in the Cordyceps genus has amplified due to its immunostimulatory potential. Cordyceps species, its extracts, and bioactive constituents have been related with cytokine production such as interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-2, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, phagocytosis stimulation of immune cells, nitric oxide production by increasing inducible nitric oxide synthase activity, and stimulation of inflammatory response via mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway. Other pharmacological activities like antioxidant, anti-cancer, antihyperlipidemic, anti-diabetic, anti-fatigue, anti-aging, hypocholesterolemic, hypotensive, vasorelaxation, anti-depressant, aphrodisiac, and kidney protection, has been reported in pre-clinical studies. These biological activities are correlated with the bioactive compounds present in Cordyceps including nucleosides, sterols, flavonoids, cyclic peptides, phenolic, bioxanthracenes, polyketides, and alkaloids, being the cyclic peptides compounds the most studied. An organized review of the existing literature was executed by surveying several databanks like PubMed, Scopus, etc. using keywords like Cordyceps, cordycepin, immune system, immunostimulation, immunomodulatory, pharmacology, anti-cancer, anti-viral, clinical trials, ethnomedicine, pharmacology, phytochemical analysis, and different species names. This review collects and analyzes state-of-the-art about the properties of Cordyceps species along with ethnopharmacological properties, application in food, chemical compounds, extraction of bioactive compounds, and various pharmacological properties with a special focus on the stimulatory properties of immunity.

Investigation of Taste-Related Compounds and Antioxidative Profiles of Retorted Samgyetang Made from Fresh and Dried Cordyceps militaris Mushrooms

This study was performed to investigate the effects of taste-related compounds and antioxidatve profiles of retorted samgyetang made from fresh and dried Cordyceps militaris (C. militaris) mushrooms. A total of 48 carcasses were prepared from commercial broilers (CB; Ross, 4 weeks old) and randomly distributed into eight different treatments. Each treatment group consisted of 6 chicken carcasses made with the addition of broth in different condition and concentration of C. militaris mushrooms. The addition concentration was based on the broth volume (v/w) under either fresh or dried conditions ranging from 0% as a control to 1%, 2%, and 3% of C. militaris mushrooms. C. militaris mushrooms contributed to an improvement of meat tenderness and the antioxidative profile that led to a greater suppression of lipid oxidation. The addition of C. militaris mushrooms at 2% could also enrich the flavor and taste-related compounds, particularly the increase in 5'-AMP and umami-related free amino acid compounds, L-aspartic acid and L-glutamic acid. Different addition forms of C. militaris mushrooms, particularly fresh or dried mushrooms, had only small effects on bioactive compounds, where the dried addition could possibly enrich samgyetang broth with higher cordycepin and adenosine contents than the fresh addition. Besides, the addition of C. militaris mushrooms in the dried form could also contribute to a higher antioxidative profile. Eventually, the addition of C. militaris mushrooms with a minimum addition of 2% contributed to an improvement of meat quality, antioxidative profile and flavor improvement of samgyetang.

Structure analysis of polysaccharides purified from Cyclocarya paliurus with DEAE-Cellulose and its antioxidant activity in RAW264.7 cells

CPP was isolated from Cyclocarya paliurus (C. paliurus) and CPP-D was purified from CPP with a further step by DEAE-Cellulose. In this study, the structure and antioxidant activities of these two polysaccharides were investigated. The molecular weight of CPP was determined as 1.15 × 10⁵ Da and the monosaccharides of it were Rha, Ara, Xyl, Man, Glc, Gal in a molar ratio of 0.021:0.237:0.020:0.036:0.454:0.231, while the molecular weight of CPP-D was 9.1 × 10³ Da and the monosaccharides of it were Man, Glc, Gal in a molar ratio of 0.235:0.677:0.088. CPP-D consisted of three structural residues →4)-β-D-Glc-(1→, →2,6)-β-D-Man-(1→ and →4)-β-D-Gal. These structures were characterized by SEM, FT-IR, GC-MS, HPGPC, and NMR. The antioxidant assay in RAW264.7 cell showed that both CPP and CPP-D promoted cell viability and antioxidant activity, which decreased the content of MDA and increased the activity of SOD, T-AOC, CAT (P < .05). As a result, CPP-D isolated by DEAE-Cellulose didn't reduce the antioxidant activity of C. paliurus polysaccharide and could enhance the cell viability.

Extracellular polysaccharide biosynthesis in Cordyceps

Cordyceps is a parasitic edible fungus with a variety of metabolically active ingredients. The main active ingredient, extracellular polysaccharide (EPS), shows favourable application prospects in prevention and treatment of certain diseases. EPS extracted from different parts of various Cordyceps species can be used in health foods or medicinal preparations because of the structural diversity and multiple bioactivities. In terms of the complexity of composition and structure, researchers have speculated on the anabolic pathways of EPSs and the genes involved in the synthesis process. Studies to increase the yield of polysaccharides are limited because the synthesis pathways and anabolic regulation mechanisms of Cordyceps exopolysaccharide remain unknown. This review summarises the current researches in the yield of Cordyceps polysaccharides. A mechanism for the biosynthesis of Cordyceps polysaccharides was proposed by referring to the polysaccharide synthesis in other species. Furthermore, we also discuss the future perspective and ongoing challenges of EPS in uses of health foods and pharmaceutics.

Anti-oxidant and anti-hyperlipidemic effects of cordycepin-rich Cordyceps militaris in a Sprague–Dawley rat model of alcohol-induced hyperlipidemia and oxidative stress

Hyperlipidemia is involved in serious cardiovascular disease, however, synthetic drugs to reduce lipid contents in blood stream have been found to induce serious side effects. In the current study, we compared anti-oxidant and anti-hyperlipidemic effect of Paecilomyces japonica (PJ), Cordyceps militaris (CM) and cordycepin-rich Cordyceps militaris (CMα) in rats induced alcoholic hyperlipidemia (AIH) and oxidative stress. The experimental groups were divided in N (water), C (30% alcohol), PJ (30% alcohol + 3% PJ powder), CM (30% alcohol + 3% CM powder), CMα (30% alcohol + 3% CMα powder) and SM [30% alcohol + 0.1% silymarin (SM)]. Compared to C group, supplementation of PJ, CM, CMα and SM slightly alleviated the increased weight ratio of liver and kidney in the alcohol-treated rats. In addition, a significant or slight reduction was identified in total lipid, total cholesterol and HDL-cholesterol levels in the rats receiving PJ, CM and CMα as compared with C group. Administration of PJ, CM and CMα also blocked alcohol-induced lipid peroxidation via a decrease of malondialdehyde (MDA), and activated anti-oxidant enzyme, glutathione (GSH), in serum and various organ tissues. Overall, cordycepin-rich CMα showed highest anti-oxidant and anti-hyperlipidemia effect under chronic alcoholic damage. Our results indicate that CMα might be useful in inhibiting the oxidation and hyperlipidemia in alcohol-induced hepatic disease possibly because of potential anti-oxidative and anti-hyperlipidemic activities of cordycepin.

Enzymatic hydrolysis pretreatment for enhancing the protein solubility and physicochemical quality of Cordyceps militaris chicken soup

Chicken soup is one of the most popular Chinese-style soups due to its high nutritional value and special flavor. However, the nutrients, mainly soluble protein, in the soup are relatively low. The aim of the present work was to enhance the protein solubility and other physicochemical properties of Cordyceps militaris chicken soup by enzymatic hydrolysis pretreatment. Results indicated that the soluble protein dissolution rate and flavor nucleotides (I+G) of Cordyceps militaris chicken soup had 1.6-fold and 0.5-fold increase, respectively, after enzymatic hydrolysis pretreatment. Not only the contents of total amino acids (TAA) and essential amino acids (EAA) in Cordyceps militaris chicken soup significantly increased, the organoleptic quality was also markedly improved after the enzymatic hydrolysis pretreatment. The present work provides a potential approach, which is enzymatic hydrolysis pretreatment of chicken meat, to enhance the protein solubility and physicochemical quality of Cordyceps militaris chicken soup.

Structural characterization of novel comb-like branched α-d-glucan from Arca inflata and its immunoregulatory activities in vitro and in vivo

In the current study, we identified and characterized a novel water-soluble polysaccharide (JNY2PW) with significant immunoregulatory effects and no apparent overall toxicity. JNY2PW, which was isolated from Arca inflata, belongs to a novel class of α-glucans with a molecular weight of 5.25 × 107 Da. Its backbone is composed of (1 → 4)-linked α-d-glucopyranosyl residues and a single (1 → 6)-α-d-glucopyranosyl branched unit for every five α-d-glucopyranosyl residues, showing a comb-like α-d-glucan with intensive short branches. Using in vitro models, we demonstrated that JNY2PW exerts significant immunoregulatory effects by promoting the production of nitric oxide, interleukin-6, and tumor necrosis factor α. The pathway involves the activation of the TLR4-MAPK/NF-κB signaling cassette in murine RAW264.7 macrophages. In an in vivo immunosuppressive mice model induced by cyclophosphamide treatment, we found that the JNY2PW treatment produced good antitumor activity, comparable to that of chemotherapy by doxycycline in murine breast carcinoma 4T1-bearing mice, but devoid of any observable side effects (e.g. weight loss) related with doxycycline treatment. The anti-tumor mechanism of JNY2PW may involve an overall enhancement in the immune responses of the mice to tumors. These results indicate that JNY2PW possesses potential as an adjuvant to existing chemotherapy and current immune-oncology treatment.

Multiple fingerprint and fingerprint-activity relationship for quality assessment of polysaccharides from Flammulina velutipes

Polysaccharides are known as one of the most important bioactive compounds in Flammulina velutipes. However, there is no accurate and comprehensive assessment method to evaluate and authenticate F. velutipes polysaccharides (FVPs) from different sources. In this study, a multiple fingerprint analysis method including scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was established. The inhibitory activities of FVPs against HepG2 were measured and introduced into multiple linear regression (MLR) analysis to investigate fingerprint-activity relationship. The principal component analysis (PCA) scores showed that the polysaccharides extracted from 20 batches of different F. velutipes were highly similar, and substandard samples could be distinguished from the authentic polysaccharides clearly. The glucuronic acid could be considered as a marker for discrimination of white and yellow F. velutipes polysaccharides in HPLC fingerprints. Moreover, the HPLC fingerprint-growth inhibitory activity relationship illuminated that monosaccharides composition played an important role on the HepG2 growth inhibitory activity, and activity-associated markers (mannose, rhamnose, xylose, and galactose) were chosen to assess FVPs from different sources. The suggested HPLC fingerprint-activity relationship method provides an integrated strategy for the quality control of F. velutipes and its related products.

Structural characterization of a novel polysaccharide from Sargassum thunbergii and its antioxidant and anti-inflammation effects

A novel polysaccharide STSP-I was isolated and purified from Sargassum thunbergii. Its structure and bioactivity were studied using gas chromatography (GC), fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), periodate oxidation-smith degradation, partial acid hydrolysis, methylation-GC-MS, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), radicals scavenging assays and anti-inflammatory assays. STSP-I was consisted of fucose and galactose with a molar ratio of 1.2:1, and its mass was 373 kDa. The main structural components of STSP-I were →4)-α-D-Galp-(1→ and →3)-β-L-Fucp-(1→, STSP-I was a non-branched polysaccharide, and TEM further revealed the existence of entangled chains and linear forms. Compared with Vitamin C (Vc), STSP-I showed a higher scavenging effect of superoxide radical (EC50 = 0.22 mg/mL) and an equivalent scavenging effect of hydroxyl radical (EC50 = 0.88 mg/mL). STSP-I also exhibited good inhibitory effects of TNF-α, IL-6 and COX-2 mRNA expressions in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 mouse macrophage cells, and the inhibitory effects were more than 91% at the concentrations of 75 and 150 μg/ml. The results indicate that the polysaccharide STSP-I from S. thunbergii with the linear structure may serve as potential antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agents.

Structural characterization and rheological properties of a pectin with anti-constipation activity from the roots of Arctium lappa L

A new pectin (ALP-2) was extracted from the roots of Arctium lappa L. with the molecular weight of 1.84 × 10⁶ Da. ALP-2 was composed of rhamnose, glucuronic acid, galacturonic acid, glucose, galactose, xylose and arabinose. Results of NMR revealed that the dominant linkage types of ALP-2 were →4-α-GalpA-6-OMe-(1→, →2-α-Rha-(1→, →5-α-Araf-(1→ and →3,6-β-Galp-(1→. The ELISA results indicated ALP-2 was a typical pectin with HG chain and RG-I chain. The rheological experiments showed that ALP-2 fluid exhibited shear thinning behavior. The viscosity of ALP-2 was mainly affected by concentration, temperature, and pH. The ALP-2 fluid with elastic properties at high frequencies could be used as a thickener in the food industry. Moreover, ALP-2 with the dosages of 200 mg/kg and 400 mg/kg exhibited strong anti-constipation activity in vivo. ALP-2 treated groups could improve small intestinal movement rate and increase the weight of feces significantly in constipation mice. Therefore, ALP-2 could be considered as the active component for functional food or therapeutic agent in constipation therapy.

The structural characterization of a polysaccharide exhibiting antitumor effect from Pholiota adiposa mycelia

PAP80-2a, purified from Pholiota adiposa mycelia, is a polysaccharide exhibiting prominent antitumor effects. However, the yield of PAP80-2a was low and its structure has not been characterized, impeding the exploration of its structure-function relationship, thus influencing the development of oral drugs for antitumor therapy and immunomodulation. In order to improve the yield of PAP80-2a, response surface methodology along with Box-Behnken design was applied to optimize the ultrasonic-assisted extraction conditions for polysaccharides. Then, the structure of PAP80-2a exhibiting antitumor activity was determined from different angles. The results showed that the extraction yield of P. adiposa polysaccharides increased by 11.5% under optimized ultrasonic extraction conditions. Structural analysis showed that PAP80-2a was mainly composed of glucose, rhamnose, xylose, and galactose in a ratio of 10.00: 2.09: 4.09: 1.13. The total amino acid content in the sugar chain was 69.92 μg/mL. The sugar chain structure was [α-Rha (1 → 3)-]n, and rhamnose was located at the non-reducing end of the sugar chain, while glucose was located at the non-reducing end or in the sugar chain in 1,2,6- and 1,3,6-linked forms. Our study clearly illuminates the primary structure of PAP80-2a, but 3D structure of PAP80-2a and its structure–function relationship is a future challenge.