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Brunetti P, Berardinelli D, Giorgetti A, Schwelm HM, Haschimi B, Pelotti S, Busardò FP, Auwärter V. Human metabolism and basic pharmacokinetic evaluation of AP-238: A recently emerged acylpiperazine opioid. Drug Test Anal 2024; 16:221-235. [PMID: 37376716 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2023] [Revised: 06/12/2023] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023]
Abstract
As a consequence of recently implemented legal restrictions on fentanyl analogs, a new generation of acylpiperazine opioids appeared on the illicit drug market. AP-238 was the latest opioid in this series to be notified by the European Early Warning System in 2020 and was involved in an increasing number of acute intoxications. AP-238 metabolism was investigated to provide useful markers of consumption. For the tentative identification of the main phase I metabolites, a pooled human liver microsome assay was performed. Further, four whole blood and two urine samples collected during post-mortem examinations and samples from a controlled oral self-administration study were screened for anticipated metabolites. In total, 12 AP-238 phase I metabolites were identified through liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry in the in vitro assay. All of these were confirmed in vivo, and additionally, 15 phase I and five phase II metabolites were detected in the human urine samples, adding up to a total of 32 metabolites. Most of these metabolites were also detected in the blood samples, although mostly with lower abundances. The main in vivo metabolites were built by hydroxylation combined with further metabolic reactions such as O-methylation or N-deacylation. The controlled oral self-administration allowed us to confirm the usefulness of these metabolites as proof of intake in abstinence control. The detection of metabolites is often crucial to documenting consumption, especially when small traces of the parent drug can be found in real samples. The in vitro assay proved to be suitable for the prediction of valid biomarkers of novel synthetic opioid intake.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pietro Brunetti
- Unit of Forensic Toxicology, Section of Legal Medicine, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Marche Polytechnic University, Ancona, Italy
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Germany
| | - Diletta Berardinelli
- Unit of Forensic Toxicology, Section of Legal Medicine, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Marche Polytechnic University, Ancona, Italy
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Germany
| | - Arianna Giorgetti
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Germany
- Unit of Legal Medicine, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Hannes Max Schwelm
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Germany
- Hermann Staudinger Graduate School, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Belal Haschimi
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Germany
- Hermann Staudinger Graduate School, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Susi Pelotti
- Unit of Legal Medicine, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Francesco Paolo Busardò
- Unit of Forensic Toxicology, Section of Legal Medicine, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Marche Polytechnic University, Ancona, Italy
| | - Volker Auwärter
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Germany
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Toxicological and pharmacological characterization of novel cinnamylpiperazine synthetic opioids in humans and in vitro including 2-methyl AP-237 and AP-238. Arch Toxicol 2022; 96:1701-1710. [PMID: 35275255 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-022-03257-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2021] [Accepted: 02/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
The recent scheduling actions of fentanyl-related substances in both the United States and China have sparked the emergence and proliferation of other generations of "legal" opioids that are structurally distinct from fentanyl, including the recently emerged class of cinnamylpiperazines. In contrast to fentanyl, which contains a piperidine core and a phenethyl moiety, the primary structural components of cinnamylpiperazines are the piperazine core and a cinnamyl moiety. This manuscript reports on the toxicological profile for antemortem and postmortem cases where a cinnamylpiperazine was detected. Samples were quantitatively confirmed using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. The cases were received between February 2020 and April 2021. Concentrations of 2-methyl AP-237 from four postmortem cases ranged from 820 to 5800 ng/mL, and concentrations of AP-238 from two postmortem cases were 87 and 120 ng/mL. µ-Opioid receptor (MOR) activation potential for 2-methyl AP-237, AP-237, para-methyl AP-237, and AP-238 were studied using a βarr2 recruitment assay. Efficacies (Emax, relative to hydromorphone) and potencies (EC50) were derived and of the compounds tested AP-238 was the most potent compound in the panel with an EC50 of 248 nM. 2-Methyl AP-237 was found to be the most efficacious drug (Emax = 125%) of the tested cinnamylpiperazines; however, it had substantially less efficacy than fentanyl. The in vitro MOR activation potential of the studied cinnamylpiperazines was lower than that of fentanyl and other novel synthetic opioids (NSOs), in line with the relatively higher concentrations observed in postmortem toxicology samples-an important observational link between in vitro pharmacology and in vivo toxicology.
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3
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Resnik K, Brandão P, Alves EA. DARK Classics in Chemical Neuroscience: Bucinnazine. ACS Chem Neurosci 2021; 12:3527-3534. [PMID: 34528782 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.1c00522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Bucinnazine (1-butyryl-4-cinnamylpiperazine) is a synthetic opioid recently discovered in heroin seized samples in the U.S and in Europe. It was first synthesized in the late 1960s and has been used for the treatment of cancer-associated chronic pain in China for many years. Bucinnazine is one of the most potent compounds among the series of piperazines, which also include other relevant compounds, such as MT-45, AD-1211, and 2-methyl-AP-237, a methylated derivative of bucinnazine. Bucinnazine is considered a μ-selective opioid, binding primarily to the μ-opioid receptor. However, bucinnazine also may share several characteristics with other piperazines, which act primarily on dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine neurotransmission. At the present, bucinnazine is not scheduled in the U.S., as it is not a therapeutic choice for the treatment of pain. Nevertheless, with the advent of the cryptocurrency and the easy access of substances on the Darknet, bucinnazine is a real threat to the public health. This review discusses the main aspects of bucinnazine's chemistry, pharmacology, and toxicology and brings attention to the risk of the presence of this opioid in seized samples. Further studies on bucinnazine are still required to better evaluate its toxicity mechanisms, potential for drug-drug interactions, and abuse liability. Such information will be of utmost importance to guide future policies concerning the legal status of bucinnazine in the U.S.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karissa Resnik
- Department of Forensic Science, College of Humanities and Sciences, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23284, United States
| | - Pedro Brandão
- CQC, Department of Chemistry, University of Coimbra, Coimbra 3004-535, Portugal
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, University of Évora, Évora 7000, Portugal
| | - Emanuele Amorim Alves
- Department of Forensic Science, College of Humanities and Sciences, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23284, United States
- Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, Brazil
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4
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In vitro functional characterization of a panel of non-fentanyl opioid new psychoactive substances. Arch Toxicol 2020; 94:3819-3830. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-020-02855-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2020] [Accepted: 07/14/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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5
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Wodtke R, Steinberg J, Köckerling M, Löser R, Mamat C. NMR-based investigations of acyl-functionalized piperazines concerning their conformational behavior in solution. RSC Adv 2018; 8:40921-40933. [PMID: 35557922 PMCID: PMC9091627 DOI: 10.1039/c8ra09152h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2018] [Accepted: 11/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Selected N-benzoylated piperazine compounds were synthesized to study their conformational behavior using temperature-dependent 1H NMR spectroscopy. All investigated piperazines occur as conformers at room temperature resulting from the restricted rotation of the partial amide double bond. In the case of selected mono-N-benzoylated and unsymmetrically N,N'-substituted derivatives, the appearance of the 1H NMR spectrum was further shaped by the limited interconversion of the piperazine chair conformations. Therefore, two different coalescence points T C were determined and their resulting activation energy barriers ΔG ‡ were calculated to be between 56 and 80 kJ mol-1. In most of the cases, T C and ΔG ‡ for the amide site appeared to be higher than the corresponding values for the ring inversion. The influences of substituents on rotational and inversion barriers were analyzed by correlation to Hammett constants. The obtained results are discussed and interpreted in the context of literature data. An additional aryl substituent connected at the amine site led to reduced rotational and inversion barriers compared to the free secondary amine. To support and evidence the findings from the NMR analyses, single crystals of selected piperazines were obtained and XRD analyses were performed. To underline the results, two potential TGase 2 inhibitors were investigated showing energy barriers with similar values.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Wodtke
- Institut für Radiopharmazeutische Krebsforschung, Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf Bautzner Landstraße 400 D-01328 Dresden Germany
| | - Janine Steinberg
- Institut für Radiopharmazeutische Krebsforschung, Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf Bautzner Landstraße 400 D-01328 Dresden Germany
- Fakultät Chemie und Lebensmittelchemie, Technische Universität Dresden D-01062 Dresden Germany
| | - Martin Köckerling
- Institut für Chemie - Anorganische Festkörperchemie, Universität Rostock Albert-Einstein-Straße 4a D-18059 Rostock Germany
| | - Reik Löser
- Institut für Radiopharmazeutische Krebsforschung, Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf Bautzner Landstraße 400 D-01328 Dresden Germany
- Fakultät Chemie und Lebensmittelchemie, Technische Universität Dresden D-01062 Dresden Germany
| | - Constantin Mamat
- Institut für Radiopharmazeutische Krebsforschung, Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf Bautzner Landstraße 400 D-01328 Dresden Germany
- Fakultät Chemie und Lebensmittelchemie, Technische Universität Dresden D-01062 Dresden Germany
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Ghorbani-Choghamarani A, Taherinia Z, Nikoorazm M. Ionic liquid supported on magnetic nanoparticles as a novel reusable nanocatalyst for the efficient synthesis of tetracyclic quinazoline compounds. RESEARCH ON CHEMICAL INTERMEDIATES 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s11164-018-3510-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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7
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Synthesis, biological evaluation and molecular modeling studies of phenyl-/benzhydrylpiperazine derivatives as potential MAO inhibitors. Bioorg Chem 2018; 77:252-262. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2018.01.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2017] [Revised: 01/07/2018] [Accepted: 01/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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8
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Lligadas G, Enayati M, Grama S, Smail R, Sherman SE, Percec V. Ultrafast SET-LRP with Peptoid Cytostatic Drugs as Monofunctional and Bifunctional Initiators. Biomacromolecules 2017; 18:2610-2622. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.7b00722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Gerard Lligadas
- Roy
and Diana Vagelos Laboratories, Department of Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6323, United States
- Laboratory
of Sustainable Polymers, Department of Analytical Chemistry and Organic
Chemistry, University Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona, Spain
| | - Mojtaba Enayati
- Roy
and Diana Vagelos Laboratories, Department of Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6323, United States
| | - Silvia Grama
- Roy
and Diana Vagelos Laboratories, Department of Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6323, United States
| | - Rauan Smail
- Roy
and Diana Vagelos Laboratories, Department of Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6323, United States
| | - Samuel E. Sherman
- Roy
and Diana Vagelos Laboratories, Department of Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6323, United States
| | - Virgil Percec
- Roy
and Diana Vagelos Laboratories, Department of Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6323, United States
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9
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Zhang G, Ji X, Yu H, Yang L, Jiao P, Huang H. Palladium-catalyzed hydroaminocarbonylation of alkenes with amines promoted by weak acid. Tetrahedron Lett 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tetlet.2015.12.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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10
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Design, synthesis and nootropic activity of new analogues of sunifiram and sapunifiram, two potent cognition-enhancers. Bioorg Med Chem 2009; 17:7606-14. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2009.08.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2009] [Revised: 08/26/2009] [Accepted: 08/27/2009] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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11
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Patras G, Qiao GG, Solomon DH. On the mechanism of background silver staining during sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Electrophoresis 1999; 20:2039-45. [PMID: 10451112 DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1522-2683(19990701)20:10<2039::aid-elps2039>3.0.co;2-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
A novel experimental procedure to study the factors that contribute to background silver staining in sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) is described. A mechanism is proposed for background silver staining, which was found to result primarily from the redox initiator system using ammonium persulphate (APS) and an amine such as N,N,N',N'-tetramethylethylenediamine (TEMED).
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Affiliation(s)
- G Patras
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia
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12
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Morishita SI, Baba S, Nagase Y. Studies on drug metabolism by use of isotopes XX: Ion cluster technique for detection of urinary metabolites of 1-butyryl-4-cinnamylpiperazine by mass chromatography. J Pharm Sci 1978; 67:757-61. [PMID: 660448 DOI: 10.1002/jps.2600670606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
An ion cluster technique and mass chromatography were used for the structural elucidation of several unidentified urinary metabolites of 1-butyryl-4-cinnamylpiperazine (I) in mice and guinea pigs. The urinary metabolites in guinea pigs and mice receiving a single 100 mg/kg dose of an equimolar mixture of 1-butyryl-4-[aromatic-d(5)]-cinnamylpiperazine (I-d(5)) hydrochloride and I hydrochloride (I:I-d(5)) were purified and subjected to trimethylsilyl derivatization with bis(trimethylsilyl)acetamide, followed by GLC-mass spectrometry-computer analysis. Appropriate fragment and molecular ions of unidentified metabolites were selected based on the major mass fragment ions appearing in the mass spectra of the previously identified metabolites of I to provide the mass chromatograms. The presence of ion clusters as doublet peaks in the mass chromatograms indicated that the corresponding total ion peaks originated from the administered I:I-d(5). The mass spectra of selected scans from the total ion chromatogram were plotted, and the structures of unidentified metabolites were readily determined by the presence of ion clusters separated by 3-5 mass units and by the shift of the fragment ions. By using this technique, six previously unidentified metabolites were identified in the urine of guinea pigs and two were identified in the urine of mice.
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13
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Dhawan B, Southwick PL. A CONVENIENT PREPARATION OF MONOAROYLPIPERAZINE HYDROCHLORIDES. ORG PREP PROCED INT 1975. [DOI: 10.1080/00304947509355576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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14
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Irikura T, Nishino K, Ito N, Ito M, Ohkubo H. Studies on analgesic agents. VI. Analgesic effect of 1-butyryl-4-cinnamylpiperazine hydrochloride. JAPANESE JOURNAL OF PHARMACOLOGY 1970; 20:287-93. [PMID: 5311564 DOI: 10.1254/jjp.20.287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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15
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Chapter 4. Analgesic Agents. ANNUAL REPORTS IN MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY 1969. [DOI: 10.1016/s0065-7743(08)60644-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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