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Gazzaroli G, Angeli A, Giacomini A, Ronca R. Proteasome inhibitors as anticancer agents. Expert Opin Ther Pat 2023; 33:775-796. [PMID: 37847492 DOI: 10.1080/13543776.2023.2272648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2023] [Accepted: 10/16/2023] [Indexed: 10/18/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The therapeutic targeting of the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway (UPP) through inhibitors of the 20S proteasome core proteolytic activities has revolutionized the treatment of hematological malignancies and is paving the way for its extension to solid tumors. AREAS COVERED This review covers the progress made in the field of proteasome inhibitors, ranging from the first-generation bortezomib to the latest second-generation inhibitors such as carfilzomib and ixazomib as well as the proteasome inhibitors in clinical phase such as oprozomib and marizomib. The development of selective and potent proteasome inhibitors with improved pharmacological properties is described from the synthesis to their basic biological, and clinical validation. EXPERT OPINION Proteasome inhibitors have transformed the treatment landscape for hematological malignancies and hold great promise for cancer therapy. Combination therapies targeting multiple pathways, the development of novel inhibitors or 'hybrid-inhibitors,' and the optimization of treatment protocols are key areas for future exploration. The extension of proteasome inhibitors for the treatment of solid tumors, and their ability to pass the blood-brain barrier open new possibilities for treating central nervous system cancers. However, managing adverse effects, particularly those affecting the central nervous system, remains a critical consideration and a strategic 'working on' aspect for the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giorgia Gazzaroli
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
| | - Andrea Angeli
- Neurofarba Department, University of Florence, Sesto Fiorentino, Florence, Italy
| | - Arianna Giacomini
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
| | - Roberto Ronca
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
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Mir RH, Mir PA, Uppal J, Chawla A, Patel M, Bardakci F, Adnan M, Mohi-ud-din R. Evolution of Natural Product Scaffolds as Potential Proteasome Inhibitors in Developing Cancer Therapeutics. Metabolites 2023; 13:metabo13040509. [PMID: 37110167 PMCID: PMC10142660 DOI: 10.3390/metabo13040509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2023] [Revised: 03/28/2023] [Accepted: 03/29/2023] [Indexed: 04/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Homeostasis between protein synthesis and degradation is a critical biological function involving a lot of precise and intricate regulatory systems. The ubiquitin-proteasome pathway (UPP) is a large, multi-protease complex that degrades most intracellular proteins and accounts for about 80% of cellular protein degradation. The proteasome, a massive multi-catalytic proteinase complex that plays a substantial role in protein processing, has been shown to have a wide range of catalytic activity and is at the center of this eukaryotic protein breakdown mechanism. As cancer cells overexpress proteins that induce cell proliferation, while blocking cell death pathways, UPP inhibition has been used as an anticancer therapy to change the balance between protein production and degradation towards cell death. Natural products have a long history of being used to prevent and treat various illnesses. Modern research has shown that the pharmacological actions of several natural products are involved in the engagement of UPP. Over the past few years, numerous natural compounds have been found that target the UPP pathway. These molecules could lead to the clinical development of novel and potent anticancer medications to combat the onslaught of adverse effects and resistance mechanisms caused by already approved proteasome inhibitors. In this review, we report the importance of UPP in anticancer therapy and the regulatory effects of diverse natural metabolites, their semi-synthetic analogs, and SAR studies on proteasome components, which may aid in discovering a new proteasome regulator for drug development and clinical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reyaz Hassan Mir
- Pharmaceutical Chemistry Division, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Kashmir, Hazratbal, Srinagar 190006, Jammu and Kashmir, India
| | - Prince Ahad Mir
- Khalsa College of Pharmacy, G.T. Road, Amritsar 143001, Punjab, India
| | - Jasreen Uppal
- Khalsa College of Pharmacy, G.T. Road, Amritsar 143001, Punjab, India
| | - Apporva Chawla
- Khalsa College of Pharmacy, G.T. Road, Amritsar 143001, Punjab, India
| | - Mitesh Patel
- Department of Biotechnology, Parul Institute of Applied Sciences and Centre of Research for Development, Parul University, Vadodara 391760, Gujarat, India
| | - Fevzi Bardakci
- Department of Biology, College of Science, University of Ha’il, Ha’il P.O. Box 2440, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohd Adnan
- Department of Biology, College of Science, University of Ha’il, Ha’il P.O. Box 2440, Saudi Arabia
| | - Roohi Mohi-ud-din
- Department of General Medicine, Sher-I-Kashmir Institute of Medical Sciences (SKIMS), Srinagar 190001, Jammu and Kashmir, India
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Della Sala G, Agriesti F, Mazzoccoli C, Tataranni T, Costantino V, Piccoli C. Clogging the Ubiquitin-Proteasome Machinery with Marine Natural Products: Last Decade Update. Mar Drugs 2018; 16:E467. [PMID: 30486251 PMCID: PMC6316072 DOI: 10.3390/md16120467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2018] [Revised: 11/11/2018] [Accepted: 11/22/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The ubiquitin-proteasome pathway (UPP) is the central protein degradation system in eukaryotic cells, playing a key role in homeostasis maintenance, through proteolysis of regulatory and misfolded (potentially harmful) proteins. As cancer cells produce proteins inducing cell proliferation and inhibiting cell death pathways, UPP inhibition has been exploited as an anticancer strategy to shift the balance between protein synthesis and degradation towards cell death. Over the last few years, marine invertebrates and microorganisms have shown to be an unexhaustive factory of secondary metabolites targeting the UPP. These chemically intriguing compounds can inspire clinical development of novel antitumor drugs to cope with the incessant outbreak of side effects and resistance mechanisms induced by currently approved proteasome inhibitors (e.g., bortezomib). In this review, we report about (a) the role of the UPP in anticancer therapy, (b) chemical and biological properties of UPP inhibitors from marine sources discovered in the last decade, (c) high-throughput screening techniques for mining natural UPP inhibitors in organic extracts. Moreover, we will tell about the fascinating story of salinosporamide A, the first marine natural product to access clinical trials as a proteasome inhibitor for cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerardo Della Sala
- Laboratory of Pre-Clinical and Translational Research, IRCCS-CROB, Referral Cancer Center of Basilicata, 85028 Rionero in Vulture, Italy.
| | - Francesca Agriesti
- Laboratory of Pre-Clinical and Translational Research, IRCCS-CROB, Referral Cancer Center of Basilicata, 85028 Rionero in Vulture, Italy.
| | - Carmela Mazzoccoli
- Laboratory of Pre-Clinical and Translational Research, IRCCS-CROB, Referral Cancer Center of Basilicata, 85028 Rionero in Vulture, Italy.
| | - Tiziana Tataranni
- Laboratory of Pre-Clinical and Translational Research, IRCCS-CROB, Referral Cancer Center of Basilicata, 85028 Rionero in Vulture, Italy.
| | - Valeria Costantino
- The NeaNat Group, Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples Federico II, via D. Montesano 49, 80131 Napoli, Italy.
| | - Claudia Piccoli
- Laboratory of Pre-Clinical and Translational Research, IRCCS-CROB, Referral Cancer Center of Basilicata, 85028 Rionero in Vulture, Italy.
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Foggia, via L. Pinto c/o OO.RR., 71100 Foggia, Italy.
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Dubiella C, Cui H, Groll M. Tunable Probes with Direct Fluorescence Signals for the Constitutive and Immunoproteasome. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2018; 55:13330-13334. [PMID: 27709817 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201605753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2016] [Revised: 07/20/2016] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Electrophiles are commonly used for the inhibition of proteases. Notably, inhibitors of the proteasome, a central determinant of cellular survival and a target of several FDA-approved drugs, are mainly characterized by the reactivity of their electrophilic head groups. We aimed to tune the inhibitory strength of peptidic sulfonate esters by varying the leaving groups. Indeed, proteasome inhibition correlated well with the pKa of the leaving group. The use of fluorophores as leaving groups enabled us to design probes that release a stoichiometric fluorescence signal upon reaction, thereby directly linking proteasome inactivation to the readout. This principle could be applicable to other sulfonyl fluoride based inhibitors and allows the design of sensitive probes for enzymatic studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Dubiella
- Center for Integrated Protein Science Munich (CIPSM), Department of Chemistry, Technische Universität München, Lichtenbergstrasse 4, 85748, Garching, Germany.
| | - Haissi Cui
- Center for Integrated Protein Science Munich (CIPSM), Department of Chemistry, Technische Universität München, Lichtenbergstrasse 4, 85748, Garching, Germany
| | - Michael Groll
- Center for Integrated Protein Science Munich (CIPSM), Department of Chemistry, Technische Universität München, Lichtenbergstrasse 4, 85748, Garching, Germany.
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(-)-Homosalinosporamide A and Its Mode of Proteasome Inhibition: An X-ray Crystallographic Study. Mar Drugs 2018; 16:md16070240. [PMID: 30029468 PMCID: PMC6071143 DOI: 10.3390/md16070240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2018] [Revised: 07/05/2018] [Accepted: 07/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Upon acylation of the proteasome by the β-lactone inhibitor salinosporamide A (SalA), tetrahydrofuran formation occurs by intramolecular alkylation of the incipient alkoxide onto the choroethyl sidechain and irreversibly blocks the active site. Our previously described synthetic approach to SalA, utilizing a bioinspired, late-stage, aldol-β-lactonization strategy to construct the bicyclic β-lactone core, enabled synthesis of (⁻)-homosalinosporamide A (homoSalA). This homolog was targeted to determine whether an intramolecular tetrahydropyran is formed in a similar manner to SalA. Herein, we report the X-ray structure of the yeast 20S proteasome:homoSalA-complex which reveals that tetrahydropyran ring formation does not occur despite comparable potency at the chymotrypsin-like active site in a luminogenic enzyme assay. Thus, the natural product derivative homoSalA blocks the proteasome by a covalent reversible mode of action, opening the door for further fine-tuning of proteasome inhibition.
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Ge Y, Li A, Wu J, Feng H, Wang L, Liu H, Xu Y, Xu Q, Zhao L, Li Y. Design, synthesis and biological evaluation of novel non-peptide boronic acid derivatives as proteasome inhibitors. Eur J Med Chem 2017; 128:180-191. [PMID: 28182990 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2017.01.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2016] [Revised: 12/03/2016] [Accepted: 01/21/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
A novel series of non-peptide proteasome inhibitors bearing the 1, 4-naphthoquinone scaffold and boronic acid warhead was developed. In the biological evaluation on the chymotrypsin-like activity of human 20S proteasome, five compounds showed IC50 values in the nanomolar range. Docking experiments into the yeast 20S proteasome rationalized their biological activities and allowed further optimization of this interesting class of inhibitors. Within the cellular proliferation inhibition assay and western blot analysis, compound 3e demonstrated excellent anti-proliferative activity against solid tumor cells and clear accumulation of ubiquitinated cellular proteins. Furthermore, in the microsomal stability assay compound 3e demonstrated much improved metabolic stability compared to bortezomib, emerging as a promising lead compound for further design of non-peptide proteasome inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Ge
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Aibo Li
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Jianwei Wu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Haiwei Feng
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Letian Wang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Hongwu Liu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Yungen Xu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Drug Design and Optimization, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China; Department of Medicinal Chemistry, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Qingxiang Xu
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, Nanjing 210008, China.
| | - Li Zhao
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Drug Design and Optimization, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China.
| | - Yuyan Li
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Drug Design and Optimization, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China; Department of Medicinal Chemistry, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China.
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7
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Dubiella C, Cui H, Groll M. Regulierbare Sonden mit direktem Fluoreszenzsignal für das konstitutive und das Immunoproteasom. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201605753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Christian Dubiella
- Center for Integrated Protein Science Munich (CIPSM); Fakultät für Chemie; Technische Universität München; Lichtenbergstraße 4 85748 Garching Deutschland
| | - Haissi Cui
- Center for Integrated Protein Science Munich (CIPSM); Fakultät für Chemie; Technische Universität München; Lichtenbergstraße 4 85748 Garching Deutschland
| | - Michael Groll
- Center for Integrated Protein Science Munich (CIPSM); Fakultät für Chemie; Technische Universität München; Lichtenbergstraße 4 85748 Garching Deutschland
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8
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Śledź P, Baumeister W. Structure-Driven Developments of 26S Proteasome Inhibitors. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 2016; 56:191-209. [DOI: 10.1146/annurev-pharmtox-010814-124727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Paweł Śledź
- Department of Molecular Structural Biology, Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry, 82152 Martinsried, Germany;
| | - Wolfgang Baumeister
- Department of Molecular Structural Biology, Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry, 82152 Martinsried, Germany;
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Murphy CD, Sandford G. Recent advances in fluorination techniques and their anticipated impact on drug metabolism and toxicity. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2015; 11:589-99. [DOI: 10.1517/17425255.2015.1020295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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10
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Milani P, Demasi M, de Rezende L, Amaral ATD, Andrade LH. Synthesis ofl-cysteine-based boron compounds and their evaluation as proteasome inhibitors. NEW J CHEM 2014. [DOI: 10.1039/c4nj00612g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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11
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Enzyme inhibition by hydroamination: design and mechanism of a hybrid carmaphycin-syringolin enone proteasome inhibitor. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 21:782-91. [PMID: 24930969 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2014.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2013] [Revised: 03/13/2014] [Accepted: 04/22/2014] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Hydroamination reactions involving the addition of an amine to an inactivated alkene are entropically prohibited and require strong chemical catalysts. While this synthetic process is efficient at generating substituted amines, there is no equivalent in small molecule-mediated enzyme inhibition. We report an unusual mechanism of proteasome inhibition that involves a hydroamination reaction of alkene derivatives of the epoxyketone natural product carmaphycin. We show that the carmaphycin enone first forms a hemiketal intermediate with the catalytic Thr1 residue of the proteasome before cyclization by an unanticipated intramolecular alkene hydroamination reaction, resulting in a stable six-membered morpholine ring. The carmaphycin enone electrophile, which does not undergo a 1,4-Michael addition as previously observed with vinyl sulfone and α,β-unsaturated amide-based inhibitors, is partially reversible and gives insight into the design of proteasome inhibitors for cancer chemotherapy.
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12
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Noel A, Delpech B, Crich D. Chemistry of the β-thiolactones: substituent and solvent effects on thermal decomposition and comparison with the β-lactones. J Org Chem 2014; 79:4068-77. [PMID: 24716459 DOI: 10.1021/jo500577c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The synthesis of a series of di-, tri-, and tetraalkyl β-thiolactones and β-lactones is described as well as their thermal decomposition with extrusion of carbon oxysulfide and carbon dioxide in two solvents of opposite polarities. The β-thiolactones are considerably more thermally stable than the β-lactones and require higher temperatures for efficient decomposition in both solvents, whatever the degree of substitution. The results are interpreted in terms of a zwitterionic mechanism for fragmentation with a change in the rate-determining step between the two series.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amandine Noel
- Centre de Recherche de Gif, Institut de Chimie des Substances Naturelles, CNRS , Avenue de la Terrasse, 91190 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
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Blasdel LK, Lee D, Sun B, Myers AG. (S)-4-Trimethylsilyl-3-butyn-2-ol as an auxiliary for stereocontrolled synthesis of salinosporamide analogs with modifications at positions C2 and C5. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2013; 23:6905-10. [PMID: 24269479 PMCID: PMC3854947 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2013.09.066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2013] [Accepted: 09/23/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Analogs of salinosporamide A with variations of the C2 and C5 substituents are prepared in 8-10 steps using as the first and key transformation a diastereoselective Mukaiyama aldol reaction between the chiral 5-tert-butyldimethylsiloxy-3-methyl-1H-pyrrole-2-carboxylic ester depicted and various aldehyde substrates, promoted by tert-butyldimethylsilyl triflate. In this transformation, the 4-trimethylsilyl-3-butyn-2-ol ester functions to direct the formation of predominantly one of four possible diastereomeric aldol products. Introduction of the C2 appendage by a later-stage, stereocontrolled alkylation reaction permits the construction of analogs variant at this position. Results from in vitro and cell-based assays of proteasomal inhibition are reported. Mass spectrometric studies provide mechanistic details of proteasomal modification by salinosporamide A and analogs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - DongEun Lee
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | | | - Andrew G. Myers
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
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Kawamura S, Unno Y, Tanaka M, Sasaki T, Yamano A, Hirokawa T, Kameda T, Asai A, Arisawa M, Shuto S. Investigation of the Noncovalent Binding Mode of Covalent Proteasome Inhibitors around the Transition State by Combined Use of Cyclopropylic Strain-Based Conformational Restriction and Computational Modeling. J Med Chem 2013; 56:5829-42. [DOI: 10.1021/jm400542h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Yuka Unno
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Shizuoka, Yada, Shizuoka 422-8526, Japan
| | - Motohiro Tanaka
- School of Pharmacy, Aichi Gakuin University, 1-100 Kusumoto-cho, Chikusa-ku,
Nagoya 464-8650, Japan
| | - Takuma Sasaki
- School of Pharmacy, Aichi Gakuin University, 1-100 Kusumoto-cho, Chikusa-ku,
Nagoya 464-8650, Japan
| | - Akihito Yamano
- Rigaku Corporation, X-ray Institute, 3-9-12
Matsubara-cho, Akishima, Tokyo 196-8666, Japan
| | - Takatsugu Hirokawa
- Computational Biology Research Center (CBRC), National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), 2-4-7 Aomi, Koutou-ku, Tokyo 135-0064, Japan
| | - Tomoshi Kameda
- Computational Biology Research Center (CBRC), National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), 2-4-7 Aomi, Koutou-ku, Tokyo 135-0064, Japan
| | - Akira Asai
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Shizuoka, Yada, Shizuoka 422-8526, Japan
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Ozcan S, Kazi A, Marsilio F, Fang B, Guida WC, Koomen J, Lawrence HR, Sebti SM. Oxadiazole-isopropylamides as potent and noncovalent proteasome inhibitors. J Med Chem 2013; 56:3783-805. [PMID: 23547706 DOI: 10.1021/jm400221d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Screening of the 50000 ChemBridge compound library led to the identification of the oxadiazole-isopropylamide 1 (PI-1833) which inhibited chymotrypsin-like (CT-L) activity (IC50 = 0.60 μM) with little effects on the other two major proteasome proteolytic activities, trypsin-like (T-L) and postglutamyl-peptide-hydrolysis-like (PGPH-L). LC-MS/MS and dialysis show that 1 is a noncovalent and rapidly reversible CT-L inhibitor. Focused library synthesis provided 11ad (PI-1840) with CT-L activity (IC50 = 27 nM). Detailed SAR studies indicate that the amide moiety and the two phenyl rings are sensitive toward modifications. Hydrophobic residues, such as propyl or butyl in the para position (not ortho or meta) of the A-ring and a m-pyridyl group as B-ring, significantly improve activity. Compound 11ad (IC50 = 0.37 μM) is more potent than 1 (IC50 = 3.5 μM) at inhibiting CT-L activity in intact MDA-MB-468 human breast cancer cells and inhibiting their survival. The activity of 11ad warrants further preclinical investigation of this class as noncovalent proteasome inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sevil Ozcan
- Drug Discovery Department, Moffitt Cancer Center , 12902 Magnolia Drive, Tampa, Florida 33612, USA
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Velyvis A, Kay LE. Measurement of active site ionization equilibria in the 670 kDa proteasome core particle using methyl-TROSY NMR. J Am Chem Soc 2013; 135:9259-62. [PMID: 23800213 DOI: 10.1021/ja403091c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The 20S proteasome core particle is a molecular machine that plays a central role in the regulation of cellular function through proteolysis, and it has emerged as a valuable drug target for certain classes of cancers. Central to the development of new and potent pharmaceuticals is an understanding of the mechanism by which the proteasome cleaves substrates. A number of high-resolution structures of the 20S proteasome with and without inhibitors have emerged that provide insight into the chemistry of peptide bond cleavage and establish the role of Thr1 Oγ1 as the catalytic nucleophile. The source of the base that accepts the Thr1 Hγ1 is less clear. Using a highly deuterated sample of the proteasome labeled with (13)CH3 at the Thr-γ positions, the pKA of the Thr1 amino group has been measured to be 6.3 and hence deprotonated in the range of maximal enzyme activity. This provides strong evidence that the terminal amino group of Thr1 serves as the base in the first step of the peptide bond cleavage reaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Algirdas Velyvis
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5S 1A8.
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Stein ML, Groll M. Applied techniques for mining natural proteasome inhibitors. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2013; 1843:26-38. [PMID: 23360979 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2013.01.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2012] [Accepted: 01/14/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In eukaryotic cells, the ubiquitin-proteasome-system (UPS) is responsible for the non-lysosomal degradation of proteins and plays a pivotal role in such vital processes as protein homeostasis, antigen processing or cell proliferation. Therefore, it is an attractive drug target with various applications in cancer and immunosuppressive therapies. Being an evolutionary well conserved pathway, many pathogenic bacteria have developed small molecules, which modulate the activity of their hosts' UPS components. Such natural products are, due to their stepwise optimization over the millennia, highly potent in terms of their binding mechanisms, their bioavailability and selectivity. Generally, this makes bioactive natural products an ideal starting point for the development of novel drugs. Since four out of the ten best seller drugs are natural product derivatives, research in this field is still of unfathomable value for the pharmaceutical industry. The currently most prominent example for the successful exploitation of a natural compound in the UPS field is carfilzomib (Kyprolis®), which represents the second FDA approved drug targeting the proteasome after the admission of the blockbuster bortezomib (Velcade®) in 2003. On the other hand side of the spectrum, ONX 0914, which is derived from the same natural product as carfilzomib, has been shown to selectively inhibit the immune response related branch of the pathway. To date, there exists a huge potential of UPS inhibitors with regard to many diseases. Both approved drugs against the proteasome show severe side effects, adaptive resistances and limited applicability, thus the development of novel compounds with enhanced properties is a main objective of active research. In this review, we describe the techniques, which can be utilized for the discovery of novel natural inhibitors, which in particular block the 20S proteasomal activity. In addition, we will illustrate the successful implementation of a recently published methodology with the example of a highly potent but so far unexploited group of proteasome inhibitors, the syrbactins, and their biological functions. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Ubiquitin-Proteasome System. Guest Editors: Thomas Sommer and Dieter H. Wolf.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin L Stein
- Center for Integrated Protein Science at the Department Chemie, Lehrstuhl für Biochemie, Technische Unversität München, Lichtenbergstraße 4, 85748 Garching, Germany.
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Tan KL, Koh SB, Ee RPL, Khan M, Go ML. Curcumin Analogues with Potent and Selective Anti-proliferative Activity on Acute Promyelocytic Leukemia: Involvement of Accumulated Misfolded Nuclear Receptor Co-repressor (N-CoR) Protein as a Basis for Selective Activity. ChemMedChem 2012; 7:1567-79. [DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201200293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2012] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Wei D, Lei B, Tang M, Zhan CG. Fundamental reaction pathway and free energy profile for inhibition of proteasome by Epoxomicin. J Am Chem Soc 2012; 134:10436-50. [PMID: 22697787 DOI: 10.1021/ja3006463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
First-principles quantum mechanical/molecular mechanical free energy calculations have been performed to provide the first detailed computational study on the possible mechanisms for reaction of proteasome with a representative peptide inhibitor, Epoxomicin (EPX). The calculated results reveal that the most favorable reaction pathway consists of five steps. The first is a proton transfer process, activating Thr1-O(γ) directly by Thr1-N(z) to form a zwitterionic intermediate. The next step is nucleophilic attack on the carbonyl carbon of EPX by the negatively charged Thr1-O(γ) atom, followed by a proton transfer from Thr1-N(z) to the carbonyl oxygen of EPX (third step). Then, Thr1-N(z) attacks on the carbon of the epoxide group of EPX, accompanied by the epoxide ring-opening (S(N)2 nucleophilic substitution) such that a zwitterionic morpholino ring is formed between residue Thr1 and EPX. Finally, the product of morpholino ring is generated via another proton transfer. Noteworthy, Thr1-O(γ) can be activated directly by Thr1-N(z) to form the zwitterionic intermediate (with a free energy barrier of only 9.9 kcal/mol), and water cannot assist the rate-determining step, which is remarkably different from the previous perception that a water molecule should mediate the activation process. The fourth reaction step has the highest free energy barrier (23.6 kcal/mol) which is reasonably close to the activation free energy (∼21-22 kcal/mol) derived from experimental kinetic data. The obtained novel mechanistic insights should be valuable for not only future rational design of more efficient proteasome inhibitors but also understanding the general reaction mechanism of proteasome with a peptide or protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donghui Wei
- Department of Chemistry, Zhengzhou University, Daxue Road, Zhengzhou, Henan 450052, China
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20
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Chen ZH, Wang BL, Kale AJ, Moore BS, Wang RW, Qing FL. Coupling of sterically hindered aldehyde with fluorinated synthons: Stereoselective synthesis of fluorinated analogues of salinosporamide A. J Fluor Chem 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jfluchem.2012.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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21
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Ge Y, Kazi A, Marsilio F, Luo Y, Jain S, Brooks W, Daniel KG, Guida WC, Sebti SM, Lawrence HR. Discovery and synthesis of hydronaphthoquinones as novel proteasome inhibitors. J Med Chem 2012; 55:1978-98. [PMID: 22220566 DOI: 10.1021/jm201118h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Screening efforts led to the identification of PI-8182 (1), an inhibitor of the chymotrypsin-like (CT-L) activity of the proteasome. Compound 1 contains a hydronaphthoquinone pharmacophore with a thioglycolic acid side chain at position 2 and thiophene sulfonamide at position 4. An efficient synthetic route to the hydronaphthoquinone sulfonamide scaffold was developed, and compound 1 was synthesized in-house to confirm the structure and activity (IC(50) = 3.0 ± 1.6 μM [n = 25]). Novel hydronaphthoquinone derivatives of 1 were designed, synthesized, and evaluated as proteasome inhibitors. The structure-activity relationship (SAR) guided synthesis of more than 170 derivatives revealed that the thioglycolic acid side chain is required and the carboxylic acid group of this side chain is critical to the CT-L inhibitory activity of compound 1. Furthermore, replacement of the carboxylic acid with carboxylic acid isosteres such as tetrazole or triazole greatly improves potency. Compounds with a thio-tetrazole or thio-triazole side chain in position 2, where the thiophene was replaced by hydrophobic aryl moieties, were the most active compounds with up to 20-fold greater CT-L inhibition than compound 1 (compounds 15e, 15f, 15h, 15j, IC(50) values around 200 nM, and compound 29, IC(50) = 150 nM). The synthetic iterations described here not only led to improving potency in vitro but also resulted in the identification of compounds that are more active such as 39 (IC(50) = 0.44 to 1.01 μM) than 1 (IC(50) = 3.54 to 7.22 μM) at inhibiting the proteasome CT-L activity in intact breast cancer cells. Treatment with 39 also resulted in the accumulation of ubiquitinated cellular proteins and inhibition of tumor cell proliferation of breast cancer cells. The hit 1 and its analogue 39 inhibited proteasome CT-L activity irreversibly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiyu Ge
- Drug Discovery Department, Moffitt Cancer Center, 12902 Magnolia Drive, Tampa, Florida 33612, USA
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Gräwert MA, Groll M. Exploiting nature's rich source of proteasome inhibitors as starting points in drug development. Chem Commun (Camb) 2011; 48:1364-78. [PMID: 22039589 DOI: 10.1039/c1cc15273d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Cancer is the No. 2 cause of death in the Western world and one of the most expensive diseases to treat. Thus, it is not surprising, that every major pharmaceutical and biotechnology company has a blockbuster oncology product. In 2003, Millennium Pharmaceuticals entered the race with Velcade®, a first-in-class proteasome inhibitor that has been approved by the FDA for treatment of multiple myeloma and its sales have passed the billion dollar mark. Velcade®'s extremely toxic boronic acid pharmacophore, however, contributes to a number of severe side effects. Nevertheless, the launching of this product has validated the proteasome as a target in fighting cancer and further proteasome inhibitors have entered the market as anti-cancer drugs. Additionally, proteasome inhibitors have found application as crop protection agents, anti-parasitics, immunosuppressives, as well as in new therapies for muscular dystrophies and inflammation. Many of these compounds are based on microbial metabolites. In this review, we emphasize the important role of the structural elucidation of the various unique binding mechanisms of these compounds that have been optimized throughout evolution to target the proteasome. Based on this knowledge, medicinal chemists have further optimized these natural products, resulting in potential drugs with reduced off-target activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa Ann Gräwert
- Center for Integrated Protein Science at the Department Chemie, Lehrstuhl für Biochemie, Technische Universität München, Lichtenbergstrasse 4, 85748 Garching, Germany.
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Obaidat A, Weiss J, Wahlgren B, Manam RR, Macherla VR, McArthur K, Chao TH, Palladino MA, Lloyd GK, Potts BC, Enna SJ, Neuteboom STC, Hagenbuch B. Proteasome regulator marizomib (NPI-0052) exhibits prolonged inhibition, attenuated efflux, and greater cytotoxicity than its reversible analogs. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2011; 337:479-86. [PMID: 21303921 PMCID: PMC3083100 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.110.177824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2010] [Accepted: 02/07/2011] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study was undertaken to compare the cellular transport characteristics of [(3)H]NPI-0052 (1R,4R,5S)-4-(2-chloroethyl)-1-((S)-((S)-cyclohex-2-enyl)(hydroxy)methyl)-5-methyl-6-oxa-2-azabicyclo[3.2.0]heptane-3,7-dione (marizomib; salinosporamide A) and [(3)H]NPI-0047 (1R,4R, 5S)-1-((S)-((S)-cyclohex-2-enyl)(hydroxy)methyl)-4-ethyl-5-methyl-6-oxa-2-azabicyclo[3.2.0]heptane-3,7-dione in RPMI 8226 multiple myeloma and PC-3 prostate adenocarcinoma cells to determine whether these properties explain differences in the cytotoxic potencies of these chemical analogs. The results indicate that marizomib, which possesses a chemical-leaving group, is more cytotoxic to both cell lines and inhibits proteasome activity more completely at lower concentrations than NPI-0047, a nonleaving-group analog. Moreover, it was found that both compounds accumulate in these cells by simple diffusion and the same carrier-mediated transport system. Although the rate of uptake is similar, the cellular efflux, which does not seem to be mediated by a major ATP-binding cassette (ABC)-efflux transporter, is more rapid for NPI-0047 than for marizomib. Experiments revealed that the irreversible binding of marizomib to the proteasome is responsible for its slower efflux, longer duration of action, and greater cytotoxicity compared with NPI-0047. The discovery that major ABC transporters of the multidrug resistance-associated protein family do not seem to be involved in the accumulation or removal of these agents suggests they may not be affected by multidrug resistance mechanisms during prolonged administration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda Obaidat
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, 3901 Rainbow Blvd., Kansas City, KS 66160, USA
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25
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Nguyen H, Ma G, Gladysheva T, Fremgen T, Romo D. Bioinspired total synthesis and human proteasome inhibitory activity of (-)-salinosporamide A, (-)-homosalinosporamide A, and derivatives obtained via organonucleophile promoted bis-cyclizations. J Org Chem 2011; 76:2-12. [PMID: 21047113 PMCID: PMC5546919 DOI: 10.1021/jo101638r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
A full account of concise, enantioselective syntheses of the anticancer agent (-)-salinosporamide A and derivatives, including (-)-homosalinosporamide, that was inspired by biosynthetic considerations is described. The brevity of the synthetic strategy stems from a key bis-cyclization of a β-keto tertiary amide, which retains optical purity enabled by A(1,3)-strain rendering slow epimerization relative to the rate of bis-cyclization. Optimization studies of the key bis-cyclization, enabled through byproduct isolation and characterization, are described that ultimately allowed for a gram scale synthesis of a versatile bicyclic core structure with a high degree of stereoretention. An optimized procedure for zincate generation by the method of Knochel, generally useful for the synthesis of salino A derivatives, led to dramatic improvements in side-chain attachment and a novel diastereomer of salino A. The versatility of the described strategy is demonstrated by the synthesis of designed derivatives including (-)-homosalinosporamide A. Inhibition of the human 20S and 26S proteasome by these derivatives using an enzymatic assay are also reported. The described total synthesis of salino A raises interesting questions regarding how biosynthetic enzymes leading to the salinosporamides proceeding via optically active β-keto secondary amides, are able to maintain the stereochemical integrity at the labile C2 stereocenter or if a dynamic kinetic resolution is operative.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henry Nguyen
- Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, P.O. Box 30012, College Station, Texas 77842-3012, USA
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Gulder TAM, Moore BS. Salinosporamide natural products: Potent 20 S proteasome inhibitors as promising cancer chemotherapeutics. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2010; 49:9346-67. [PMID: 20927786 PMCID: PMC3103133 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201000728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 171] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Proteasome inhibitors are rapidly evolving as potent treatment options in cancer therapy. One of the most promising drug candidates of this type is salinosporamide A from the bacterium Salinispora tropica. This marine natural product possesses a complex, densely functionalized γ-lactam-β-lactone pharmacophore, which is responsible for its irreversible binding to its target, the β subunit of the 20S proteasome. Salinosporamide A entered phase I clinical trials for the treatment of multiple myeloma only three years after its discovery. The strong biological activity and the challenging structure of this compound have fueled intense academic and industrial research in recent years, which has led to the development of more than ten syntheses, the elucidation of its biosynthetic pathway, and the generation of promising structure-activity relationships and oncological data. Salinosporamide A thus serves as an intriguing example of the successful interplay of modern drug discovery and biomedical research, medicinal chemistry and pharmacology, natural product synthesis and analysis, as well as biosynthesis and bioengineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tobias A. M. Gulder
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography and Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California at San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0204 (USA), Fax: (+1)858-534-1305, , Homepage: http://moorelab.ucsd.edu
| | - Bradley S. Moore
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography and Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California at San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0204 (USA), Fax: (+1)858-534-1305, , Homepage: http://moorelab.ucsd.edu
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Gulder TAM, Moore BS. Salinosporamid-Naturstoffe: potente Inhibitoren des 20S-Proteasoms als vielversprechende Krebs-Chemotherapeutika. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2010. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201000728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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28
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Lawrence HR, Kazi A, Luo Y, Kendig R, Ge Y, Jain S, Daniel K, Santiago D, Guida WC, Sebti SM. Synthesis and biological evaluation of naphthoquinone analogs as a novel class of proteasome inhibitors. Bioorg Med Chem 2010; 18:5576-92. [PMID: 20621484 PMCID: PMC3530924 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2010.06.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2010] [Revised: 06/10/2010] [Accepted: 06/14/2010] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Screening of the NCI Diversity Set-1 identified PI-083 (NSC-45382) a proteasome inhibitor selective for cancer over normal cells. Focused libraries of novel compounds based on PI-083 chloronaphthoquinone and sulfonamide moieties were synthesized to gain a better understanding of the structure-activity relationship responsible for chymotrypsin-like proteasome inhibitory activity. This led to the demonstration that the chloronaphthoquinone and the sulfonamide moieties are critical for inhibitory activity. The pyridyl group in PI-083 can be replaced with other heterocyclic groups without significant loss of activity. Molecular modeling studies were also performed to explore the detailed interactions of PI-083 and its derivatives with the beta5 and beta6 subunits of the 20S proteasome. The refined model showed an H-bond interaction between the Asp-114 and the sulfonamide moiety of the PI-083 in the beta6 subunit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harshani R Lawrence
- Drug Discovery Department, Moffitt Cancer Center, 12901 Magnolia Drive, Tampa, FL 33612, USA.
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Nguyen H, Ma G, Romo D. A(1,3)-strain enabled retention of chirality during bis-cyclization of beta-ketoamides: total synthesis of (-)-salinosporamide A and (-)-homosalinosporamide A. Chem Commun (Camb) 2010; 46:4803-5. [PMID: 20498903 PMCID: PMC2981177 DOI: 10.1039/c0cc00607f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
A concise, enantioselective synthesis of the Phase I anticancer agent, (-)-salinosporamide A, is described. The brevity of the described strategy stems from a key bis-cyclization of a beta-keto tertiary amide, accomplished on gram scale, which retains optical purity enabled by A(1,3)-strain rendering epimerization slow relative to the rate of bis-cyclization. The versatility of the strategy for derivative synthesis is demonstrated by the synthesis of (-)-homosalinosporamide A.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henry Nguyen
- Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77840, USA.
| | | | - Daniel Romo
- Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77840, USA.
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30
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Proteasome inhibitors: Dozens of molecules and still counting. Biochimie 2010; 92:1530-45. [PMID: 20615448 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2010.06.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2010] [Accepted: 06/29/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
The discovery of the proteasome in the late 80's as the core protease of what will be then called the ubiquitin-proteasome system, rapidly followed by the development of specific inhibitors of this enzyme, opened up a new era in biology in the 90's. Indeed, the first proteasome inhibitors were instrumental for understanding that the proteasome is a key actor in most, if not all, cellular processes. The recognition of the central role of this complex in intracellular proteolysis in turn fuelled an intense quest for novel compounds with both increased selectivity towards the proteasome and better bioavailability that could be used in fundamental research or in the clinic. To date, a plethora of molecules that target the proteasome have been identified or designed. The success of the proteasome inhibitor bortezomib (Velcade(®)) as a new drug for the treatment of Multiple Myeloma, and the ongoing clinical trials to evaluate the effect of several other proteasome inhibitors in various human pathologies, illustrate the interest for human health of these compounds.
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31
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Generating a generation of proteasome inhibitors: from microbial fermentation to total synthesis of salinosporamide a (marizomib) and other salinosporamides. Mar Drugs 2010; 8:835-80. [PMID: 20479958 PMCID: PMC2866466 DOI: 10.3390/md8040835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2010] [Revised: 03/19/2010] [Accepted: 03/22/2010] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The salinosporamides are potent proteasome inhibitors among which the parent marine-derived natural product salinosporamide A (marizomib; NPI-0052; 1) is currently in clinical trials for the treatment of various cancers. Methods to generate this class of compounds include fermentation and natural products chemistry, precursor-directed biosynthesis, mutasynthesis, semi-synthesis, and total synthesis. The end products range from biochemical tools for probing mechanism of action to clinical trials materials; in turn, the considerable efforts to produce the target molecules have expanded the technologies used to generate them. Here, the full complement of methods is reviewed, reflecting remarkable contributions from scientists of various disciplines over a period of 7 years since the first publication of the structure of 1.
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