Photochemical Electron Transfer Mediated Addition of Naphthylamine Derivatives to Electron-Deficient Alkenes

α-Nucleophilic Addition to α,β-Unsaturated Carbonyl Compounds via Photocatalytically Generated α-Carbonyl Carbocations

We report the photocatalytic oxidation of α-carbonyl radicals of amides or esters to the corresponding α-carbonyl carbocations through super photoreductant CBZ6 induced redox-neutral photocatalysis. The α-carbonyl radicals are formed by the β-addition of alkyl radicals generated in situ by the photocatalytic fragmentation of N-hydroxyphthalimide esters to the α,β-unsaturated amides and esters. This method enables the α-nucleophilic addition of hydroxyl or alkoxyl radicals to amides and esters without any prefunctionalization.

Photochemically Induced Hydrogen Atom Transfer and Intramolecular Radical Cyclization Reactions with Oxazolones

Photochemically induced intramolecular hydrogen atom transfer in oxazolones is reported. An acetal or thioacetal function at the side chain acts as a hydrogen donor while the photochemical exited oxazolone is the acceptor. A one-step process─the electron and the proton are simultaneously transferred─is productive, while electron transfer followed by proton transfer is inefficient. Radical combination then takes place, leading to the formation of a C-C or C-N bond. The regioselectivity of the reaction is explained by the diradical/zwitterion dichotomy of radical intermediates at the singlet state. In the present case, the zwitterion structure plays a central role, and intramolecular electron transfer favors spin-orbit coupling and thus the intersystem crossing to the singlet state. The reaction of corresponding thioacetal derivatives is less efficient. In this case, photochemical electron transfer is competitive. The photoproducts resulting from C-C bond formation easily undergo stepwise thermal decarboxylation in which zwitterionic and polar transition states are involved. A computational study of this step has also been performed.

Metal-Free Aerobic C-N Bond Formation of Styrene and Arylamines via Photoactivated Electron Donor-Acceptor Complexation

This study processes a facile and green approach for the Markovnikov-selective hydroamination of styrene with naphthylamine through irradiation with UV LED light (365 nm) via an electron donor-acceptor complexation between naphthylamines and oxygen in situ. This protocol showcases the synthetic potential for aerobic C-N bond formation without using a metal catalyst and photosensitizer. Three naphthylamines were examined and afforded desired C-N bond formation product in moderate yield.

Photo-Mediated Intermolecular Coupling of Alkenes with Ketones via Acyloxy Nitroso Compounds

An atom-economic intermolecular radical addition reaction of acyloxy nitroso compounds to electron-deficient alkenes mediated by visible light is reported. The starting nitroso derivatives are readily prepared by oxidation of the corresponding oximes prepared from ketones and the overall transformation represents an oxidative coupling of a ketone with a Michael acceptor. The cascade proceeds smoothly under mild conditions, providing a series of valuable functionalized oximes in moderate to good yields. Mechanistic studies suggest that these cascades proceed via addition/coupling processes that are controlled by the persistent radical effect (PRE) with NO acting as the persistent species.

Visible-Light-Induced Synthesis of 1,2,3,4-Tetrahydroquinolines through Formal [4+2] Cycloaddition of Acyclic α,β-Unsaturated Amides and Imides with N,N-Dialkylanilines

1,2,3,4-Tetrahydroquinolines should be applicable to the development of new pharmaceutical agents. A facile synthesis of 1,2,3,4-tetrahydroquinolines that is achieved by a photoinduced formal [4+2] cycloaddition reaction of acyclic α,β-unsaturated amides and imides with N,N-dialkylanilines under visible-light irradiation, in which a new Ir^III complex photosensitizer, a thiourea, and an oxidant act cooperatively in promoting the reaction, is reported. The photoreaction enables the synthesis of a wide variety of 1,2,3,4-tetrahydroquinolines, while controlling the trans/cis diastereoselectivity (>99:1) and constructing contiguous stereogenic centers. A chemoselective cleavage of an acyclic imide auxiliary is demonstrated.

TiO2 photocatalysis for C–C bond formation

Synergistic utilization of TiO₂-photo-generated holes and electrons is a potential protocol for catalytic C–C bond formation reactions.

Selective α-arylation of α,β-unsaturated imides mediated by a visible light photoredox catalyst

Visible light-mediated α-arylation of α,β-unsaturated imides is achieved via aminium radicals generated from diarylalkylamines using a photoredox catalyst.

Studies in organic and physical photochemistry - an interdisciplinary approach

Traditionally, organic photochemistry when applied to synthesis strongly interacts with physical chemistry. The aim of this review is to illustrate this very fruitful interdisciplinary approach and cooperation. A profound understanding of the photochemical reactivity and reaction mechanisms is particularly helpful for optimization and application of these reactions. Some typical reactions and particular aspects are reported such as the Norrish-Type II reaction and the Yang cyclization and related transformations, the [2 + 2] photocycloadditions, particularly the Paternò-Büchi reaction, photochemical electron transfer induced transformations, different kinds of catalytic reactions such as photoredox catalysis for organic synthesis and photooxygenation are discussed. Particular aspects such as the structure and reactivity of aryl cations, photochemical reactions in the crystalline state, chiral memory, different mechanisms of hydrogen transfer in photochemical reactions or fundamental aspects of stereoselectivity are discussed. Photochemical reactions are also investigated in the context of chemical engineering. Particularly, continuous flow reactors are of interest. Novel reactor systems are developed and modeling of photochemical transformations and different reactors play a key role in such studies. This research domain builds a bridge between fundamental studies of organic photochemical reactions and their industrial application.

Preparative semiconductor photoredox catalysis: An emerging theme in organic synthesis

Heterogeneous semiconductor photoredox catalysis (SCPC), particularly with TiO2, is evolving to provide radically new synthetic applications. In this review we describe how photoactivated SCPCs can either (i) interact with a precursor that donates an electron to the semiconductor thus generating a radical cation; or (ii) interact with an acceptor precursor that picks up an electron with production of a radical anion. The radical cations of appropriate donors convert to neutral radicals usually by loss of a proton. The most efficient donors for synthetic purposes contain adjacent functional groups such that the neutral radicals are resonance stabilized. Thus, ET from allylic alkenes and enol ethers generated allyl type radicals that reacted with 1,2-diazine or imine co-reactants to yield functionalized hydrazones or benzylanilines. SCPC with tertiary amines enabled electron-deficient alkenes to be alkylated and furoquinolinones to be accessed. Primary amines on their own led to self-reactions involving C-N coupling and, with terminal diamines, cyclic amines were produced. Carboxylic acids were particularly fruitful affording C-centered radicals that alkylated alkenes and took part in tandem addition cyclizations producing chromenopyrroles; decarboxylative homo-dimerizations were also observed. Acceptors initially yielding radical anions included nitroaromatics and aromatic iodides. The latter led to hydrodehalogenations and cyclizations with suitable precursors. Reductive SCPC also enabled electron-deficient alkenes and aromatic aldehydes to be hydrogenated without the need for hydrogen gas.

Photocatalysis with TiO2 Applied to Organic Synthesis

Titanium dioxide is a versatile heterogeneous catalyst. Absorption of light by a TiO2 particle leads to the formation of an electron–hole pair. Electron transfer from or to the particle induces redox reactions. Although mainly applied in the context of environmental chemistry, these processes are also used to selectively transform organic compounds. Oxidations and reductions have been carried out. Applications to the synthesis of heterocycles have been reported. Many C–C bond formation reactions have been performed. Owing to adsorption of the substrates or by different surface modifications, visible light can be used to excite the catalytic system, which generates mild reaction conditions.

Photochemical reactions of aromatic compounds and the concept of the photon as a traceless reagent

Electronic excitation significantly changes the reactivity of chemical compounds. Compared to ground state reactions, photochemical reactions considerably enlarge the application spectrum of a particular functional group in organic synthesis. Multistep syntheses may be simplified and perspectives for target oriented synthesis (TOS) and diversity oriented synthesis (DOS) are developed. New compound families become available or may be obtained more easily. In contrast to common chemical reagents, photons don't generate side products resulting from the transformation of a chemical reagent. Therefore, they are considered as a traceless reagent. Consequently, photochemical reactions play a central role in the methodology of sustainable chemistry. This aspect has been recognized since the beginning of the 20th century. As with many other photochemical transformations, photochemical reactions of aromatic, benzene-like compounds illustrate well the advantages in this context. Photochemical cycloadditions of aromatic compounds have been investigated for a long time. Currently, they are applied in various fields of organic synthesis. They are also studied in supramolecular structures. The phenomena of reactivity and stereoselectivity are investigated. During recent years, photochemical electron transfer mediated reactions are particularly focused. Such transformations have likewise been performed with aromatic compounds. Reactivity and selectivity as well as application to organic synthesis are studied.