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Abstract
Nitroxides, also known as nitroxyl radicals, are long-lived or stable radicals with the general structure R1R2N-O•. The spin distribution over the nitroxide N and O atoms contributes to the thermodynamic stability of these radicals. The presence of bulky N-substituents R1 and R2 prevents nitroxide radical dimerization, ensuring their kinetic stability. Despite their reactivity toward various transient C radicals, some nitroxides can be easily stored under air at room temperature. Furthermore, nitroxides can be oxidized to oxoammonium salts (R1R2N═O+) or reduced to anions (R1R2N-O-), enabling them to act as valuable oxidants or reductants depending on their oxidation state. Therefore, they exhibit interesting reactivity across all three oxidation states. Due to these fascinating properties, nitroxides find extensive applications in diverse fields such as biochemistry, medicinal chemistry, materials science, and organic synthesis. This review focuses on the versatile applications of nitroxides in organic synthesis. For their use in other important fields, we will refer to several review articles. The introductory part provides a brief overview of the history of nitroxide chemistry. Subsequently, the key methods for preparing nitroxides are discussed, followed by an examination of their structural diversity and physical properties. The main portion of this review is dedicated to oxidation reactions, wherein parent nitroxides or their corresponding oxoammonium salts serve as active species. It will be demonstrated that various functional groups (such as alcohols, amines, enolates, and alkanes among others) can be efficiently oxidized. These oxidations can be carried out using nitroxides as catalysts in combination with various stoichiometric terminal oxidants. By reducing nitroxides to their corresponding anions, they become effective reducing reagents with intriguing applications in organic synthesis. Nitroxides possess the ability to selectively react with transient radicals, making them useful for terminating radical cascade reactions by forming alkoxyamines. Depending on their structure, alkoxyamines exhibit weak C-O bonds, allowing for the thermal generation of C radicals through reversible C-O bond cleavage. Such thermally generated C radicals can participate in various radical transformations, as discussed toward the end of this review. Furthermore, the application of this strategy in natural product synthesis will be presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dirk Leifert
- Organisch-Chemisches Institut, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität, Corrensstrasse 40, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Armido Studer
- Organisch-Chemisches Institut, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität, Corrensstrasse 40, 48149 Münster, Germany
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2
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Di Berto Mancini M, Tabussi A, Bernardini M, Lanzalunga O. Oxidations of aromatic sulfides promoted by the phthalimide N-oxyl radical (PINO). J Sulphur Chem 2023. [DOI: 10.1080/17415993.2023.2182160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Marika Di Berto Mancini
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Università degli Studi di Roma “La Sapienza” and Istituto CNR per i Sistemi Biologici (ISB-CNR), Sezione Meccanismi di Reazione, c/o Dipartimento di Chimica, Università degli Studi di Roma “La Sapienza”, Rome, Italy
| | - Alessandro Tabussi
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Università degli Studi di Roma “La Sapienza” and Istituto CNR per i Sistemi Biologici (ISB-CNR), Sezione Meccanismi di Reazione, c/o Dipartimento di Chimica, Università degli Studi di Roma “La Sapienza”, Rome, Italy
| | - Marianna Bernardini
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Università degli Studi di Roma “La Sapienza” and Istituto CNR per i Sistemi Biologici (ISB-CNR), Sezione Meccanismi di Reazione, c/o Dipartimento di Chimica, Università degli Studi di Roma “La Sapienza”, Rome, Italy
| | - Osvaldo Lanzalunga
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Università degli Studi di Roma “La Sapienza” and Istituto CNR per i Sistemi Biologici (ISB-CNR), Sezione Meccanismi di Reazione, c/o Dipartimento di Chimica, Università degli Studi di Roma “La Sapienza”, Rome, Italy
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3
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Kadam RG, Ye TN, Zaoralová D, Medveď M, Sharma P, Lu Y, Zoppellaro G, Tomanec O, Otyepka M, Zbořil R, Hosono H, Gawande MB. Intermetallic Copper-Based Electride Catalyst with High Activity for C-H Oxidation and Cycloaddition of CO 2 into Epoxides. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2022; 18:e2201712. [PMID: 36026533 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202201712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2022] [Revised: 07/15/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Inorganic electrides have been proved to be efficient hosts for incorporating transition metals, which can effectively act as active sites giving an outstanding catalytic performance. Here, it is demonstrated that a reusable and recyclable (for more than 7 times) copper-based intermetallic electride catalyst (LaCu0.67 Si1.33 ), in which the Cu sites activated by anionic electrons with low-work function are uniformly dispersed in the lattice framework, shows vast potential for the selective C-H oxidation of industrially important hydrocarbons and cycloaddition of CO2 with epoxide. This leads to the production of value-added cyclic carbonates under mild reaction conditions. Importantly, the LaCu0.67 Si1.33 catalyst enables much higher turnover frequencies for the C-H oxidation (up to 25 276 h-1 ) and cycloaddition of CO2 into epoxide (up to 800 000 h-1 ), thus exceeding most nonnoble as well as noble metal catalysts. Density functional theory investigations have revealed that the LaCu0.67 Si1.33 catalyst is involved in the conversion of N-hydroxyphthalimide (NHPI) into the phthalimido-N-oxyl (PINO), which then triggers selective abstraction of an H atom from ethylbenzene for the generation of a radical susceptible to further oxygenation in the presence of O2 .
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Affiliation(s)
- Ravishankar G Kadam
- Regional Centre of Advanced Technologies and Materials, Czech Advanced Technology and Research Institute (CATRIN), Palacký University Olomouc, Šlechtitelů 27, Olomouc, 779 00, Czech Republic
| | - Tian-Nan Ye
- Frontiers Science Center for Transformative Molecules, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200240, China
| | - Dagmar Zaoralová
- Regional Centre of Advanced Technologies and Materials, Czech Advanced Technology and Research Institute (CATRIN), Palacký University Olomouc, Šlechtitelů 27, Olomouc, 779 00, Czech Republic
- IT4Innovations, VŠB-Technical University of Ostrava, 17. listopadu 2172/15, Ostrava-Poruba, 708 00, Czech Republic
| | - Miroslav Medveď
- Regional Centre of Advanced Technologies and Materials, Czech Advanced Technology and Research Institute (CATRIN), Palacký University Olomouc, Šlechtitelů 27, Olomouc, 779 00, Czech Republic
| | - Priti Sharma
- Regional Centre of Advanced Technologies and Materials, Czech Advanced Technology and Research Institute (CATRIN), Palacký University Olomouc, Šlechtitelů 27, Olomouc, 779 00, Czech Republic
| | - Yangfan Lu
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, National Engineering Research Center for Magnesium Alloys, Chongqing University, Chongqing, 400044, China
| | - Giorgio Zoppellaro
- Regional Centre of Advanced Technologies and Materials, Czech Advanced Technology and Research Institute (CATRIN), Palacký University Olomouc, Šlechtitelů 27, Olomouc, 779 00, Czech Republic
| | - Ondřej Tomanec
- Regional Centre of Advanced Technologies and Materials, Czech Advanced Technology and Research Institute (CATRIN), Palacký University Olomouc, Šlechtitelů 27, Olomouc, 779 00, Czech Republic
| | - Michal Otyepka
- Regional Centre of Advanced Technologies and Materials, Czech Advanced Technology and Research Institute (CATRIN), Palacký University Olomouc, Šlechtitelů 27, Olomouc, 779 00, Czech Republic
- IT4Innovations, VŠB-Technical University of Ostrava, 17. listopadu 2172/15, Ostrava-Poruba, 708 00, Czech Republic
| | - Radek Zbořil
- Regional Centre of Advanced Technologies and Materials, Czech Advanced Technology and Research Institute (CATRIN), Palacký University Olomouc, Šlechtitelů 27, Olomouc, 779 00, Czech Republic
- Nanotechnology Centre, CEET, VŠB-Technical University of Ostrava, 17. listopadu 2172/15, Ostrava-Poruba, 708 00, Czech Republic
| | - Hideo Hosono
- Materials Research Centre for Element Strategy, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 4259 Nagatsuta, Midori-ku, Yokohama, 226-8503, Japan
| | - Manoj B Gawande
- Regional Centre of Advanced Technologies and Materials, Czech Advanced Technology and Research Institute (CATRIN), Palacký University Olomouc, Šlechtitelů 27, Olomouc, 779 00, Czech Republic
- Department of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Institute of Chemical Technology Mumbai-Marathwada Campus Jalna, Maharashtra, 431213, India
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4
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Tretyakov EV, Ovcharenko VI, Terent'ev AO, Krylov IB, Magdesieva TV, Mazhukin DG, Gritsan NP. Conjugated nitroxide radicals. RUSSIAN CHEMICAL REVIEWS 2022. [DOI: 10.1070/rcr5025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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5
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Kato T, Maruoka K. Selective functionalization of benzylic C-H bonds of two different benzylic ethers by bowl-shaped N-hydroxyimide derivatives as efficient organoradical catalysts. Chem Commun (Camb) 2021; 58:1021-1024. [PMID: 34951412 DOI: 10.1039/d1cc06425h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A highly efficient, site-selective benzylic C-H bond amination of two different benzylic ether substrates was described by using bowl-shaped N-hydroxyimide organoradical catalysts with diethyl azodicarboxylate. The synthetic utility of this approach is demonstrated by the subsequent transformation of the amination products into the corresponding aldehydes and alkylhydrazines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Terumasa Kato
- School of Chemical Engineering and Light Industry, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China.,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Resources Biorefinery, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China.,Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyoto University, Sakyo, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan.
| | - Keiji Maruoka
- School of Chemical Engineering and Light Industry, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China.,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Resources Biorefinery, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China.,Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyoto University, Sakyo, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan.
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6
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Navarro Y, Guedes GP, Del Águila-Sánchez MA, Iglesias MJ, Lloret F, López-Ortiz F. Synthesis, crystal structures and magnetic properties of a P-stereogenic ortho-(4-amino-tempo)phosphinic amide radical and its Cu II complex. Dalton Trans 2021; 50:2585-2595. [PMID: 33522545 DOI: 10.1039/d0dt04298f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The synthesis of phosphinic amides containing one 4-amino-TEMPO substituent at the ortho position has been achieved through copper(i) catalyzed cross-coupling reactions of ortho-iodophosphinic amides with 4-amino-TEMPO. The method has been extended to the preparation of the first example of a P-stereogenic ortho-(4-amino-tempo)phosphinic amide radical 10. The reaction of 10 with Cu(hfac)2 afforded the P-stereogenic CuII complex 19. The crystal structure of both chiral compounds is reported. The molecular structure of 10 consists of a supramolecular zig-zag chain formed by intermolecular hydrogen bonds between the NH group of the phosphinic amide moiety and the nitroxide oxygen atom. In complex 19, the ligand acts as a bridge between two CuII ions coordinated to the oxygen atoms of the P[double bond, length as m-dash]O and N-O· groups leading to the formation of a polymeric helicate chain in which the metal ions exist in a distorted octahedral geometry. The magnetic behavior of ligand 10 is characterized by very weak intermolecular antiferromagnetic interactions, whereas ferro- and anti-ferromagnetic interactions are present in complex 19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yolanda Navarro
- Área de Química Orgánica, Centro de Investigación CIAIMBITAL, Universidad de Almería, Carretera de Sacramento s/n, 04120 Almería, Spain.
| | - Guilherme P Guedes
- Universidade Federal Fluminense, Instituto de Química, Departamento de Química Inorgânica, Niterói, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Miguel A Del Águila-Sánchez
- Área de Química Orgánica, Centro de Investigación CIAIMBITAL, Universidad de Almería, Carretera de Sacramento s/n, 04120 Almería, Spain.
| | - María José Iglesias
- Área de Química Orgánica, Centro de Investigación CIAIMBITAL, Universidad de Almería, Carretera de Sacramento s/n, 04120 Almería, Spain.
| | - Francisco Lloret
- Institut de Ciencia Molecular, Universitat de València, Catedràtic José Beltrán no.2, 46980 Paterna, Valencia, Spain
| | - Fernando López-Ortiz
- Área de Química Orgánica, Centro de Investigación CIAIMBITAL, Universidad de Almería, Carretera de Sacramento s/n, 04120 Almería, Spain.
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7
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Kato T, Maruoka K. Design of Bowl‐Shaped
N
‐Hydroxyimide Derivatives as New Organoradical Catalysts for Site‐Selective C(sp
3
)−H Bond Functionalization Reactions. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202003982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Terumasa Kato
- School of Chemical Engineering and Light Industry Guangdong University of Technology Guangzhou 510006 China
| | - Keiji Maruoka
- School of Chemical Engineering and Light Industry Guangdong University of Technology Guangzhou 510006 China
- Department of Chemistry Graduate School of Science Kyoto University Sakyo Kyoto 606-8502 Japan
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences Kyoto University Sakyo Kyoto 606-8501 Japan
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8
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Kato T, Maruoka K. Design of Bowl‐Shaped
N
‐Hydroxyimide Derivatives as New Organoradical Catalysts for Site‐Selective C(sp
3
)−H Bond Functionalization Reactions. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2020; 59:14261-14264. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.202003982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2020] [Revised: 05/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Terumasa Kato
- School of Chemical Engineering and Light Industry Guangdong University of Technology Guangzhou 510006 China
| | - Keiji Maruoka
- School of Chemical Engineering and Light Industry Guangdong University of Technology Guangzhou 510006 China
- Department of Chemistry Graduate School of Science Kyoto University Sakyo Kyoto 606-8502 Japan
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences Kyoto University Sakyo Kyoto 606-8501 Japan
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9
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Ma R, Chen W, Wang L, Yi X, Xiao Y, Gao X, Zhang J, Tang X, Yang C, Meng X, Zheng A, Xiao FS. N-Oxyl Radicals Trapped on Zeolite Surface Accelerate Photocatalysis. ACS Catal 2019. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.9b03737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Runyuan Ma
- Key Lab of Biomass Chemical Engineering of Ministry of Education, College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
- Key Lab of Applied Chemistry of Zhejiang Province, Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310028, China
| | - Wei Chen
- National Center for Magnetic Resonance in Wuhan, State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic and Molecular Physics and Mathematics, Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Liang Wang
- Key Lab of Biomass Chemical Engineering of Ministry of Education, College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Xianfeng Yi
- National Center for Magnetic Resonance in Wuhan, State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic and Molecular Physics and Mathematics, Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, China
| | - Yao Xiao
- National Center for Magnetic Resonance in Wuhan, State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic and Molecular Physics and Mathematics, Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, China
| | - Xinhua Gao
- State Key Laboratory of High-efficiency Utilization of Coal and Green Chemical Engineering, Ningxia University, Yinchuan 750021, China
| | - Jian Zhang
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Soft Matter Science and Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Xiaomin Tang
- National Center for Magnetic Resonance in Wuhan, State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic and Molecular Physics and Mathematics, Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, China
| | - Chengguang Yang
- Key Laboratory of Low-Carbon Conversion Science & Engineering, Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201210, China
| | - Xiangju Meng
- Key Lab of Applied Chemistry of Zhejiang Province, Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310028, China
| | - Anmin Zheng
- National Center for Magnetic Resonance in Wuhan, State Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance and Atomic and Molecular Physics and Mathematics, Wuhan Institute of Physics and Mathematics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, China
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China
| | - Feng-Shou Xiao
- Key Lab of Biomass Chemical Engineering of Ministry of Education, College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
- Key Lab of Applied Chemistry of Zhejiang Province, Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310028, China
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Soft Matter Science and Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
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10
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Zhang C, Huang Z, Lu J, Luo N, Wang F. Generation and Confinement of Long-Lived N-Oxyl Radical and Its Photocatalysis. J Am Chem Soc 2018; 140:2032-2035. [DOI: 10.1021/jacs.7b12928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chaofeng Zhang
- State
Key Laboratory of Catalysis, Dalian National Laboratory for Clean
Energy, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Dalian 116023, China
| | - Zhipeng Huang
- State
Key Laboratory of Catalysis, Dalian National Laboratory for Clean
Energy, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Dalian 116023, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Jianmin Lu
- State
Key Laboratory of Catalysis, Dalian National Laboratory for Clean
Energy, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Dalian 116023, China
| | - Nengchao Luo
- State
Key Laboratory of Catalysis, Dalian National Laboratory for Clean
Energy, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Dalian 116023, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Feng Wang
- State
Key Laboratory of Catalysis, Dalian National Laboratory for Clean
Energy, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Dalian 116023, China
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DiLabio GA, Franchi P, Lanzalunga O, Lapi A, Lucarini F, Lucarini M, Mazzonna M, Prasad VK, Ticconi B. Hydrogen Atom Transfer (HAT) Processes Promoted by the Quinolinimide-N-oxyl Radical. A Kinetic and Theoretical Study. J Org Chem 2017; 82:6133-6141. [PMID: 28534620 DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.7b00687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
A kinetic study of the hydrogen atom transfer (HAT) reactions from a series of organic compounds to the quinolinimide-N-oxyl radical (QINO) was performed in CH3CN. The HAT rate constants are significantly higher than those observed with the phthalimide-N-oxyl radical (PINO) as a result of enthalpic and polar effects due to the presence of the N-heteroaromatic ring in QINO. The relevance of polar effects is supported by theoretical calculations conducted for the reactions of the two N-oxyl radicals with toluene, which indicate that the HAT process is characterized by a significant degree of charge transfer permitted by the π-stacking that occurs between the toluene and the N-oxyl aromatic rings in the transition state structures. An increase in the HAT reactivity of QINO was observed in the presence of 0.15 M HClO4 and 0.15 M Mg(ClO4)2 due to the protonation or complexation with the Lewis acid of the pyridine nitrogen that leads to a further decrease in the electron density in the N-oxyl radical. These results fully support the use of N-hydroxyquinolinimide as a convenient substitute for N-hydroxyphthalimide in the catalytic aerobic oxidations of aliphatic hydrocarbons characterized by relatively high C-H bond dissociation energies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gino A DiLabio
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia , Okanagan, 3247 University Way, Kelowna, British Columbia, Canada V1V 1V7
| | - Paola Franchi
- Dipartimento di Chimica "G. Ciamician", Università di Bologna , Via San Giacomo 11, I-40126 Bologna, Italy
| | - Osvaldo Lanzalunga
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Sapienza Università di Roma and Istituto CNR di Metodologie Chimiche (IMC-CNR), Sezione Meccanismi di Reazione, c/o Dipartimento di Chimica, Sapienza Università di Roma , P. le A. Moro, 5, I-00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Andrea Lapi
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Sapienza Università di Roma and Istituto CNR di Metodologie Chimiche (IMC-CNR), Sezione Meccanismi di Reazione, c/o Dipartimento di Chimica, Sapienza Università di Roma , P. le A. Moro, 5, I-00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Fiorella Lucarini
- Département de Chimie, Université de Fribourg , Chemin du Musée 9, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Marco Lucarini
- Dipartimento di Chimica "G. Ciamician", Università di Bologna , Via San Giacomo 11, I-40126 Bologna, Italy
| | - Marco Mazzonna
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Sapienza Università di Roma and Istituto CNR di Metodologie Chimiche (IMC-CNR), Sezione Meccanismi di Reazione, c/o Dipartimento di Chimica, Sapienza Università di Roma , P. le A. Moro, 5, I-00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Viki Kumar Prasad
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia , Okanagan, 3247 University Way, Kelowna, British Columbia, Canada V1V 1V7
| | - Barbara Ticconi
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Sapienza Università di Roma and Istituto CNR di Metodologie Chimiche (IMC-CNR), Sezione Meccanismi di Reazione, c/o Dipartimento di Chimica, Sapienza Università di Roma , P. le A. Moro, 5, I-00185 Rome, Italy
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