Synthesis, Structure, and Reactions of NH-Bridged Calix[m]arene[n]pyridines

Unraveling the Chemistry of High Valent Arylcopper Compounds and Their Roles in Copper-Catalyzed Arene C-H Bond Transformations Using Synthetic Macrocycles

Recent decades have witnessed a resurgence of the study of copper-catalyzed organic reactions. As the surrogate of noble metal catalysts, copper salts have been shown to exhibit remarkable versatility in activating various C-H bonds enabling the construction of diverse carbon-carbon and carbon-heteroatom bonds. Advantageously, copper salts are also naturally abundant, inexpensive, and less toxic in comparison to precious metals. Despite significant developments in synthesis, the mechanism of copper catalysis remains elusive. Hypothetical pathways such as the two-electron Cu(III)/Cu(I) and Cu(II)/Cu(0) catalytic cycles and the one-electron Cu(II)/Cu(I) catalytic cycle have been invoked to diagram C-H bond transformations because of the formidable challenges to isolate and characterize transient high valent organocopper intermediates. In fact, organocopper chemistry has been dominated for a long time by the acknowledged nucleophilic organocopper(I) compounds. Since the beginning of the new millennium, we have been systematically studying the supramolecular chemistry of heteracalix[n]aromatics. Owing to the ease of their synthesis and selective functionalizations, self-tunable conformation and cavity structures resulting from the interplay of heteroatoms with aromatic subunits, and outstanding properties in molecular recognition and self-assembly, heteracalix[n]aromatics have become a class of privileged synthetic macrocyclic hosts. Our journey to the chemistry of high valent organocopper compounds started with a serendipitous discovery of the facile formation of a stable organocopper compound, which contains astonishingly a Ph-Cu(III) σ-bond under very mild aerobic conditions. When we examined routinely the effect of the macrocyclic structures on noncovalent complexation properties, titration of tetraazacalix[1]arene[3]pyridine with Cu(ClO₄)₂·6H₂O resulted in the precipitation of dark-purple crystals of phenylcopper(III) diperchlorate. Our curiosity about the transformation of an arene C-H bond into an Ar-Cu(III) bond prompted us to conduct an in-depth investigation of the reaction of macrocyclic arenes with copper(II) salts, leading to the isolation of arylcopper(II) compounds which are unprecedented and the missing link in organocopper chemistry. With structurally well-defined organometallics in hand, we have explored extensively the reactivities of both arylcopper(II) and arylcopper(III) compounds, demonstrating their versatility and uniqueness in chemical synthesis. Novel and fascinating arene C-H transformations under copper catalysis have been developed. Using acquired high valent arylcopper compounds as molecular probes, and employing the functionalizations of tetraazacalix[1]arene[3]pyridines as model reactions, we have revealed the diverse mechanisms of copper-promoted arene C-H bond reactions. Elusive reaction pathways of some copper-catalyzed C-X bond activations have also been unraveled. In the meantime, we have also witnessed pleasingly the rapid development of field with the advent of new high valent organocopper compounds. Without any doubt, studies of the synthesis, reactivity, and catalysis of high valent organocopper compounds have been reshaping the field of organocopper chemistry. This Account summarizes our endeavors to explore the chemistry of structurally well-defined arylcopper(II) and arylcopper(III) compounds and the mechanisms of copper-catalyzed arene C-H and C-X bond transformations. We hope this Account will inspire chemists to study thoroughly the fundamentals and the cutting-edge catalysis of high valent organocopper compounds advancing and redefining the discipline of organocopper chemistry.

Macrocyclic host molecules with aromatic building blocks: the state of the art and progress

Macrocyclic host molecules play the central role in host-guest chemistry and supramolecular chemistry. The highly structural symmetry of macrocyclic host molecules can meet people's pursuit of aesthetics in molecular design, and generally means a balance of design, synthesis, properties and applications. For macrocyclic host molecules with highly symmetrical structures, building blocks, which could be described as repeat units as well, are the most fundamental elements for molecular design. The structural features and recognition ability of macrocyclic host molecules are determined by the building blocks and their connection patterns. Using different building blocks, different macrocyclic host molecules could be designed and synthesized. With decades of developments of host-guest chemistry and supramolecular chemistry, diverse macrocyclic host molecules with different building blocks have been designed and synthesized. Aromatic building blocks are a big family among the various building blocks used in constructing macrocyclic host molecules. In this feature article, the recent developments of macrocyclic host molecules with aromatic building blocks were summarized and discussed.

Solution structure of a pentachromium(ii) single molecule magnet from DFT calculations, isotopic labelling and multinuclear NMR spectroscopy

Solution NMR spectroscopy on isotopically-labelled samples of [Cr₅(tpda)₄Cl₂] unveils a D₄ symmetric molecule, implying fast shuttling between the two unsymmetric ground configurations over NMR timescale.

N2,N2,N6,N6-Tetraphenylpyridine-2,6-diamine

In the title compound, C29H23N3, the molecule has an unsymmetrical structure, although it can possessCssymmetry. The NC3units around the amino N atoms are approximately planar and make dihedral angles of 13.41 (5) and 31.05 (5)° with the pyridine ring. In the crystal, C—H...N interactions between the phenyl and pyridyl rings lead to a columnar stack along thebaxis.

Synthesis of trifluoromethylthiolated azacalix[1]arene[3]pyridines from the Cu(ii)-mediated direct trifluoromethylthiolation reaction of arenes via reactive arylcopper(iii) intermediates

Cu(ii)-mediated arene C–H bond trifluoromethylthiolation with Me₄NSCF₃proceedsviaarylcopper(iii) intermediates to produce functionalized azacalix[1]arene[3]pyridine macrocycles.

Synthesis and conformational studies of chiral macrocyclic [1.1.1]metacyclophanes containing benzofuran rings

A novel hemisphere-shaped inherently chiral calixarene analogoue [1.1.1]metacyclophane containing both benzene and benzofuran rings was synthesized by fragment coupling approach.

Nitrogen and oxygen bridged calixaromatics: synthesis, structure, functionalization, and molecular recognition

Pedersen, Lehn, and Cram established supramolecular chemistry through their pioneering work with crown ethers, cryptands, and spherands. Since then, the hallmark of supramolecular science has been an increasing sophistication in the design and construction of macrocyclic molecules, as manifested in cyclodextrin derivatives, calixarenes, resorcinarenes, cyclotriveratrylenes, cucurbiturils, calixpyrroles, cyclophanes, and many other examples. Indeed, macrocyclic compounds provide unique models for the study of noncovalent molecular interactions. They also constitute building blocks for constructing high-level molecular and supramolecular architectures and fabricating molecular devices and advanced materials. As a postgraduate in the Huang laboratory in the late 1980s, I became interested in the calix[n]arenes because of their unique conformational structures and versatile complexation properties. The notion of introducing heteroatoms, and particularly nitrogen, into the bridging position of conventional calixarenes was particularly intriguing. Nitrogen, unlike methylene, can adopt either an sp(2) or sp(3) electronic configuration, providing different conjugation systems with adjacent aromatic rings. Consequently, depending on the configuration and conjugation, a range of C-N bond lengths and C-N-C bond angles is possible. The conformation and cavity size in heteroatom-bridged calixarenes might thus be tuned through the bridging heteroatoms and the number of aromatic rings. Furthermore, because heteroatom linkages significantly affect the electron density and distribution on aromatic rings, the electronic features of macrocyclic cavities might be regulated by heteroatoms. Given the essentially limitless combinations possible, only synthetic hurdles would prevent access to numerous diverse heteracalixaromatics. We began a systematic study on nitrogen- and oxygen-bridged calixarenes in 2000, years later than originally envisioned. Before this study, very few heteracalixaromatics had been reported, owing to the formidable synthetic challenges involved. Apart from thiacalixarene, the synthesis of nitrogen- and oxygen-bridged calixarenes appeared very difficult. But since our first publications in 2004, we have been delighted to see the rapid and tremendous development of the supramolecular chemistry of this new generation of macrocycles. In this Account, I summarize the synthesis of N- and O-bridged calixaromatics and their regiospecific functionalization on the rims and bridging positions, focusing on the fragment coupling approach and contributions from our laboratory. I describe the construction of molecular cages based on heteracalixaromatics and discuss the effect of both bridging heteroatoms and substituents on macrocyclic conformations and cavity sizes. Molecular recognition of neutral organic molecules and charged guest species is also demonstrated. The easy accessibility, rich molecular diversity, unique conformation, and cavity tunability of heteracalixaromatics make them invaluable macrocycles for research in supramolecular chemistry. New heteracalixaromatics, with well-defined conformations and cavity properties, will provide powerful tools for probing noncovalent interactions, leading to the development of new molecular sensing and imaging systems. Multicomponent molecular self-assembly of heteracalixaromatics as functional modules with metals, metal clusters, or charge-neutral species should result in multidimensional solid and soft materials with diverse applications. The profitable incorporation of heteracalixaromatics into molecular devices can also be anticipated in the future. Moreover, the construction of enantiopure, inherently chiral heteracalixaromatics should provide important applications in chiral recognition and asymmetric catalysis.