Transition States for Alkane Oxidations by Dioxiranes

Copper-Catalyzed Aryne Insertion into the Carbon-Iodine Bond of Heteroaryl Iodides

Aryne insertions into the carbon-iodine bond of heteroaryl iodides has been achieved for the first time. This novel reaction provides an efficient pathway for the synthesis of valuable building blocks 2-iodoheterobiaryls from heteroaryl iodides and o-silylaryl triflates in excellent regioselectivity. The copper(I) catalyst, which bears a N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) ligand, is essential to accomplish the reaction. Control reactions and DFT calculations indicate that the coordination of copper, as a Lewis acid, with nitrogen atoms of heteroaryl iodides mediates the insertion of arynes into heteroaryl carbon-iodine bonds.

Amine Organocatalysis of Remote, Chemoselective C(sp3)-H Hydroxylation

We introduce an organocatalytic approach for oxaziridinium-mediated C-H hydroxylation that employs secondary amines as catalysts. We also demonstrate the advantages of this operationally simple catalytic strategy for achieving high yielding and highly selective remote hydroxylation of compounds bearing oxidation-sensitive functional groups such as alcohols, ethers, carbamates, and amides. By employing hexafluoroisopropanol as the solvent in the absence of water, a proposed hydrogen bonding effect leads to, among other advantages, as high as ≥99:1 chemoselectivity for remote aliphatic hydroxylation of 2° alcohols, an otherwise unsolved synthetic challenge normally complicated by substantial amounts of alcohol oxidation. Initial studies of the reaction mechanism indicate the formation of an oxaziridinium salt as the active oxidant, and a C-H oxidation step that proceeds in a stereospecific manner via concerted insertion or hydrogen atom transfer/radical rebound. Furthermore, preliminary results indicate that site selectivity can be affected by amine catalyst structure. In the long term, we anticipate that this will enable new strategies for catalyst control of selectivity based on the abundance of catalytic scaffolds that have proliferated over the last twenty years as a result of Nobel Prize-winning discoveries.

Continued Progress towards Efficient Functionalization of Natural and Non-natural Targets under Mild Conditions: Oxygenation by C-H Bond Activation with Dioxirane

The successful isolation and characterization of a dioxirane species in 1988 opened up one of the most attractive methods for the efficient oxidation of simple and/or structurally complex molecules. Dioxirane today rank among the most powerful tools in organic chemistry, with numerous applications in commercially important processes. They were quickly recognized as efficient oxygen transfer agents, especially for epoxidations and for a wide range of O-insertion reactions into C-H bonds. Dioxirane possess catalytic activity and appear as highly (chemo-, regio-, and stereo-) selective oxidants, despite their reactivity under mild and strictly neutral conditions being controlled by a combination of steric and electronic factors. In this review, we discuss some of the most recent and significant developments in the selective homogeneous and heterogeneous oxyfunctionalization of non-activated C-H bonds in hydrocarbons of natural and non-natural targets by using isolated dioxirane or, more generally, by using the ketones (i.e., the dioxirane precursors) as organocatalysts.

Partial oxidation of alkanes by dioxiranes formed in situ at low temperature

Partial oxidation catalysts capable of efficiently operating at low temperatures may limit the over-oxidation of alkane substrates and thereby improve selectivity. This work focuses on examining alkane oxidation using completely metal-free organocatalysts, dioxiranes. The dioxiranes employed here are synthesized by oxidation of a ketone using a terminal oxidant, such as hydrogen peroxide. Our work generates the dioxirane in situ, so that the process can be catalytic with respect to the ketone. To date, we have demonstrated selective partial oxidation of adamantane using ketone catalysts resulting in yields upwards of 60% towards 1-adamantanol with greater than 99% selectivity. Furthermore, we have demonstrated that changing the electrophilic character of the ketone R groups to contain more electron-donating ligands facilitates the dioxirane ring formation and improves overall oxidation yields. Isotopic labelling studies using H₂¹⁸O₂ show the preferential incorporation of an ¹⁸O label into the parent ketone, providing evidence for a dioxirane intermediate formed in situ The isotopic labelling studies, along with solvent effect studies, suggest the formation of peracetic acid as a reactive intermediate.This article is part of a discussion meeting issue 'Providing sustainable catalytic solutions for a rapidly changing world'.

Heterolytic (2 e) vs Homolytic (1 e) Oxidation Reactivity: N-H versus C-H Switch in the Oxidation of Lactams by Dioxirans

Dioxiranes are powerful oxidants that can act via two different mechanisms: 1) homolytic (H abstraction and oxygen rebound) and 2) heterolytic (electrophilic oxidation). So far, it has been reported that the nature of the substrate dictates the reaction mode independently from the dioxirane employed. Herein, we report an unprecedented case in which the nature of the dioxirane rules the oxidation chemoselectivity. In particular, a switch from C-H to N-H oxidation is observed in the oxidation of lactams moving from dimethyl dioxirane (DDO) to methyl(trifluoromethyl)dioxirane (TFDO). A physical organic chemistry study, which combines the oxidation with two other dioxiranes methyl(fluoromethyl)dioxirane, MFDO, and methyl(difluoromethyl)dioxirane, DFDO, with computational studies, points to a diverse ability of the dioxiranes to either stabilize the homo or the heterolytic pathway.

Enhanced Reactivity in Hydrogen Atom Transfer from Tertiary Sites of Cyclohexanes and Decalins via Strain Release: Equatorial C-H Activation vs Axial C-H Deactivation

Absolute rate constants for hydrogen atom transfer (HAT) from cycloalkanes and decalins to the cumyloxyl radical (CumO(•)) were measured by laser flash photolysis. Very similar reactivities were observed for the C-H bonds of cyclopentane and cyclohexane, while the tertiary C-H bond of methylcyclopentane was found to be 6 times more reactive than the tertiary axial C-H bond of methylcyclohexane, pointing toward a certain extent of tertiary axial C-H bond deactivation. Comparison between the cis and trans isomers of 1,2-dimethylcyclohexane, 1,4-dimethylcyclohexane and decalin provides a quantitative evaluation of the role played by strain release in these reactions. kH values for HAT from tertiary equatorial C-H bonds were found to be at least 1 order of magnitude higher than those for HAT from the corresponding tertiary axial C-H bonds (kH(eq)/kH(ax) = 10-14). The higher reactivity of tertiary equatorial C-H bonds was explained in terms of 1,3-diaxial strain release in the HAT transition state. Increase in torsional strain in the HAT transition state accounts instead for tertiary axial C-H bond deactivation. The results are compared with those obtained for the corresponding C-H functionalization reactions by dioxiranes and nonheme metal-oxo species indicating that CumO(•) can represent a convenient model for the reactivity patterns of these oxidants.

Enhanced reactivity in dioxirane C-H oxidations via strain release: a computational and experimental study

The site selectivities and stereoselectivities of C-H oxidations of substituted cyclohexanes and trans-decalins by dimethyldioxirane (DMDO) were investigated computationally with quantum mechanical density functional theory (DFT). The multiconfiguration CASPT2 method was employed on model systems to establish the preferred mechanism and transition state geometry. The reaction pathway involving a rebound step is established to account for the retention of stereochemistry. The oxidation of sclareolide with dioxirane reagents is reported, including the oxidation by the in situ generated tBu-TFDO, a new dioxirane that better discriminates between C-H bonds on the basis of steric effects. The release of 1,3-diaxial strain in the transition state contributes to the site selectivity and enhanced equatorial C-H bond reactivity for tertiary C-H bonds, a result of the lowering of distortion energy. In addition to this strain release factor, steric and inductive effects contribute to the rates of C-H oxidation by dioxiranes.

Oxidation of some cage hydrocarbons by dioxiranes. Nature of the transition structure for the reaction of C-H bonds with dimethyldioxirane: a comparison of B3PW91 density functional theory with experiment

Dimethyl- (DMD) and methyl(trifluoromethyl)-dioxiranes were used for oxyfunctionalization of spiro{1',7-cyclopropan-(E)-2-methylbicyclo[2.2.1]heptane} (), tricyclo[3.2.2.0(2,4)]nonane (), exo-endo-endo- () and exo-exo-exo- () heptacyclo[9.3.1.0(2,10).0(3,8).0(4,6).0(5,9).0(12,14)]pentadecane, yielding tertiary alcohols as the main products. The rate constants for oxidation of by DMD were measured and the Arrhenius parameters determined. The DFT theory (B3LYP and B3PW91) using restricted and unrestricted methods was employed to study the oxidation reaction of the C-H bond of cage hydrocarbons , adamantane, and acetone with DMD. The kinetic isotopic effect calculated using unrestricted methods agreed with experiment. The reaction mechanism in terms of the concerted oxygen insertion vs. the radical part is discussed.

Functionalized Nanodiamonds Part I. An Experimental Assessment of Diamantane and Computational Predictions for Higher Diamondoids

The structures, strain energies, and enthalpies of formation of diamantane 1, triamantane 2, isomeric tetramantanes 3-5, T(d)-pentamantane 6, and D(3d)-hexamantane 7, and the structures of their respective radicals, cations, as well as radical cations, were computed at the B3LYP/6-31G* level of theory. For the most symmetrical hydrocarbons, the relative strain (per carbon atom) decreases from the lower to the higher diamondoids. The relative stabilities of isomeric diamondoidyl radicals vary only within small limits, while the stabilities of the diamondoidyl cations increase with cage size and depend strongly on the geometric position of the charge. Positive charge located close to the geometrical center of the molecule is stabilized by 2-5 kcal mol(-1). In contrast, diamondoid radical cations preferentially form highly delocalized structures with elongated peripheral C-H bonds. The effective spin/charge delocalization lowers the ionization potentials of diamondoids significantly (down to 176.9 kcal mol(-1) for 7). The reactivity of 1 was extensively studied experimentally. Whereas reactions with carbon-centered radicals (Hal)(3)C(*) (Hal=halogen) lead to mixtures of all possible tertiary and secondary halodiamantanes, uncharged electrophiles (dimethyldioxirane, m-chloroperbenzoic acid, and CrO(2)Cl(2)) give much higher tertiary versus secondary selectivities. Medial bridgehead substitution dominates in the reactions with strong electrophiles (Br(2), 100 % HNO(3)), whereas with strong single-electron transfer (SET) acceptors (photoexcited 1,2,4,5-tetracyanobenzene) apical C(4)-H bridgehead substitution is preferred. For diamondoids that form well-defined radical cations (such as 1 and 4-7), exceptionally high selectivities are expected upon oxidation with outer-sphere SET reagents.

Oxyfunctionalization of non-natural targets by dioxiranes. 5. Selective oxidation of hydrocarbons bearing cyclopropyl moieties

The powerful methyl(trifluoromethyl)dioxirane (1b) was employed to achieve the direct oxyfunctionalization of 2,4-didehydroadamantane (5), spiro[cyclopropane-1,2'-adamantane] (9), spiro[2.5]octane (17), and bicyclo[6.1.0]nonane (19). The results are compared with those attained in the analogous oxidation of two alkylcyclopropanes, i.e., n-butylcyclopropane (11) and (3-methyl-butyl)-cyclopropane (14). The product distributions observed for 11 and 14 show that cyclopropyl activation of alpha-C-H bonds largely prevails when no tertiary C-H are present in the open chain in the tether; however, in the oxyfunctionalixation of 14 cyclopropyl activation competes only mildly with hydroxylation at the tertiary C-H. The application of dioxirane 1b to polycyclic alkanes possessing a sufficiently rigid framework (such as 5 and 9) demonstrates the relevance of relative orientation of the cyclopropane moiety with respect to the proximal C-H undergoing oxidation. At one extreme, as observed in the oxidation of rigid spiro compound 9, even bridgehead tertiary C-H's become deactivated by the proximal cyclopropyl moiety laying in the unfavorable "eclipsed" (perpendicular) orientation; at the other end, a cyclopropane moiety constrained in a favorable "bisected" orientation (as for didehydroadamantane 5) can activate an "alpha" methylene CH2 to compete effectively with dioxirane O-insertion into tertiary C-H bonds. Comparison with literature reports describing similar oxidations by dimethyldioxirane (1a) demonstrate that methyl(trifluoromethyl)dioxirane (1b) presents similar selectivity and remarkably superior reactivity.

Investigation on the regioselectivities of intramolecular oxidation of unactivated C-H bonds by dioxiranes generated in situ

We found that dioxiranes generated in situ from ketones 1-6 and Oxone underwent intramolecular oxidation of unactivated C-H bonds at delta sites of ketones to yield tetrahydropyrans. From the trans/cis ratio of oxidation products 1a and 2a as well as the retention of the configuration at the delta site of ketone 5, we proposed that the oxidation reaction proceeds through a concerted pathway under a spiro transition state. The intramolecular oxidation of ketone 6 showed the preference for a tertiary delta C-H bond over a secondary one. This intramolecular oxidation method can be extended to the oxidation of the tertiary gamma' C-H bond of ketones 9 and 10. For ketone 11 with two delta C-H bonds and one gamma' C-H bond linked respectively by a sp(3) hydrocarbon tether and a sp(2) ester tether, the oxidation took place exclusively at the delta C-H bonds. Finally, by introducing proper tethers, regioselective hydroxylation of steroid ketones 12-14 have been achieved at the C-17, C-16, C-3, and C-5 positions.

Novel pathways for oxygen insertion into unactivated C-H bonds by dioxiranes. Transition structures for stepwise routes via radical pairs and comparison with the concerted pathway

The oxygen insertion into C-H bonds (of methane, isobutane, and acetone) by dioxiranes (parent dioxirane and dimethyldioxirane) to give alcohols was studied with the DFT theory, using both restricted and unrestricted B3LYP methods, and 6-31G(d) and 6-311+G(d,p) basis sets to evaluate the feasibility of stepwise mechanisms and their competition with the concerted counterpart. Confirming previous results by other authors, we have located, with the RB3LYP method, concerted TSs in which the oxygen bound to be inserted interacts very strongly with the hydrogen atom and very weakly with the carbon atom of the C-H bond. These TSs nicely explain all the experimental observations (e.g., configuration retention at the chiral centers), but all of them exhibit an RHF --> UHF wave function instability that preclude considering them as genuine transition structures. We also were able to characterize, with UB3LYP methods, two alternative two-step processes that can lead to final products (alcohol + carbonyl compound) via singlet radical pair intermediates. For the first step of both processes we located genuine diradicaloid TSs, namely, TSs rad,coll and TSs rad,perp, that have stable wave functions. In TSs rad,coll the alkane C-H bond tends to be collinear with the breaking O(1)- - -O(2) bond while in TSs rad,perp the alkane C-H bond is almost perpendicular to the O(1)- - -O(2) bond. The first step, of both processes, can represent an example of a "molecule induced homolysis" reaction: collision between alkane and dioxirane brings about the homolytic cleavage of the dioxirane O-O bond and the hydrogen abstraction follows afterward to produce the diradicaloid TS that then falls down to a singlet radical pair. This hypothesis was fully confirmed by IRC analysis in the case of TSs rad,coll. The possible pathways that lead from the intermediate radical pair to final products are discussed as well as the hypothesis that the radical collinear TSs may collapse directly to products in a "one-step nonconcerted" process. However, diradical mechanisms cannot explain the experimental data as satisfactorily as the concerted pathway does. As for computational predictions about competition of diradical vs concerted mechanisms, they strongly depend (i) on the alkane C-H type, (ii) on whether gas phase or solution is considered, and (iii) on the basis set used for calculations. In short, the concerted TS benefits, with respect to the corresponding diradicaloid TSs, of alkyl substitution at the C-H center, solvation effects, and basis set extension. Actually, in the case of DMD reactions with methane and acetone, the diradicaloid TSs are always (both in gas phase and in solution and with both the basis sets used) strongly favored over their concerted counterpart. In the case of DMD reaction with isobutane tertiary C-H bond the large favor for the diradicaloid TSs over the concerted TS, predicted in gas phase by the B3LYP/6-31G(d) method, progressively decreases as a result of basis set extension and introduction of solvent effects: the higher theory level [B3LYP/6-311+G(d,p)] suggests that in acetone solution TS conc has almost the same energy as TS rad,perp while TS rad,coll resides only 2 kcal/mol higher.

Influence of remote substituents on the equatorial/axial selectivity in the monooxygenation of methylene C--H bonds of substituted cyclohexanes

The reactivity of individual C--H bonds in the methyl(trifluoromethyl)dioxirane TFDO oxygenation of stereogenic methylene groups in conformationally homogeneous monosubstituted cyclohexanes (2) has been determined. The unexpectedly high occurrence of O-atom insertion into C--H(ax) bonds suggests an in plane trajectory attack in the oxygenation while the diastereoselectivity of the reaction is qualitatively interpreted on the basis of the distinct hyperconjugative stabilization by the substituent of diastereomeric transition states due to long-range through bond interactions.

Hyperconjugative Control by Remote Substituents of Diastereoselectivity in the Oxygenation of Hydrocarbons

The oxidation of 2-substituted adamantanes (2) with TFDO (1) is reported. The data show a stereodifferentiation of the chemical environments induced by remote electron-withdrawing substituents which produces remarkable Z/E diastereoselectivity in the oxidation of the tertiary C(5)-H and C(7)-H bonds. The results show a bell-shaped correlation between the Z/E stereoselectivity and the substituent constant sigma(I), which is interpreted in terms of hyperconjugative stabilization of the diastereomeric transition states.