Controlled Crystalline Structure and Surface Stability of Cobalt Nanocrystals

Synergistic interactions of binary suspensions of magnetic anisotropic particles

We report the effect of the dipole-dipole interaction and shape anisotropy in suspensions of permanently magnetized anisotropic particles. We quantify the dipolar interaction energy using an ellipsoid-dipole model to describe particles with similar or dissimilar shapes. The expression captures the physics of the point-dipole interaction energy between uniformly magnetized spherical particles. Additionally, we report Monte Carlo simulations to describe the effect of dipolar interaction and shape anisotropy under different field strengths. Results show that the shape anisotropy and dipolar interactions modify the head-to-tail interaction with respect to spheres, promoting dendritic and barbed-wire structures in uniform ellipsoids and binary mixtures, respectively. Furthermore, competing entropic and energy interactions generate a synergistic effect reducing the magnetic response of binary suspensions.

Synthesis of Polystyrene-Coated Superparamagnetic and Ferromagnetic Cobalt Nanoparticles

Polystyrene-coated cobalt nanoparticles (NPs) were synthesized through a dual-stage thermolysis of cobalt carbonyl (Co₂(CO)₈). The amine end-functionalized polystyrene surfactants with varying molecular weight were prepared via atom-transfer radical polymerization technique. By changing the concentration of these polymeric surfactants, Co NPs with different size, size distribution, and magnetic properties were obtained. Transmission electron microscopy characterization showed that the size of Co NPs stabilized with lower molecular weight polystyrene surfactants (Mn = 2300 g/mol) varied from 12⁻22 nm, while the size of Co NPs coated with polystyrene of middle (Mn = 4500 g/mol) and higher molecular weight (Mn = 10,500 g/mol) showed little change around 20 nm. Magnetic measurements revealed that the small cobalt particles were superparamagnetic, while larger particles were ferromagnetic and self-assembled into 1-D chain structures. Thermogravimetric analysis revealed that the grafting density of polystyrene with lower molecular weight is high. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to obtain both superparamagnetic and ferromagnetic Co NPs by changing the molecular weight and concentration of polystyrene through the dual-stage decomposition method.

Syntheses and Properties of Metal Nanomaterials with Novel Crystal Phases

In recent decades, researchers have devoted tremendous effort into the rational design and controlled synthesis of metal nanomaterials with well-defined size, morphology, composition, and structure, and great achievements have been reached. However, the crystal-phase engineering of metal nanomaterials still remains a big challenge. Recent research has revealed that the crystal phase of metal nanomaterials can significantly alter their properties, arising from the distinct atomic arrangement and modified electronic structure. Until now, it has been relatively uncommon to synthesize metal nanomaterials with novel crystal phases in spite of the fact that these nanostructures would be promising for various applications. Here, the research progress regarding the fine control of noble metal (Au, Ag, Ru, Rh, Pd) and non-noble metal (Fe, Co, Ni) nanomaterials with novel crystal phases is reviewed. First, synthesis strategies and their phase transformations are summarized, while highlighting the peculiar characteristics of each element. The phase-dependent properties are then discussed by providing representative examples. Finally, the challenges and perspectives in this emerging field are proposed.

Polymer-coated cobalt ferrite nanoparticles: synthesis, characterization, and toxicity for hyperthermia applications

OA and OLA coated CoFe₂O₄ nanoparticles encapsulated with PMAO through hydrophobic interactions were developed for hyperthermia applications.

Formation and shape-control of hierarchical cobalt nanostructures using quaternary ammonium salts in aqueous media

Aggregation and self-assembly are influenced by molecular interactions. With precise control of molecular interactions, in this study, a wide range of nanostructures ranging from zero-dimensional nanospheres to hierarchical nanoplates and spindles have been successfully synthesized at ambient temperature in aqueous solution. The nanostructures reported here are formed by aggregation of spherical seed particles (monomers) in presence of quaternary ammonium salts. Hydroxide ions and a magnetic moment of the monomers are essential to induce shape anisotropy in the nanostructures. The cobalt nanoplates are studied in detail, and a growth mechanism based on collision, aggregation, and crystal consolidation is proposed based on a electron microscopy studies. The growth mechanism is generalized for rods, spindles, and nearly spherical nanostructures, obtained by varying the cation group in the quaternary ammonium hydroxides. Electron diffraction shows different predominant lattice planes on the edge and on the surface of a nanoplate. The study explains, hereto unaddressed, the temporal evolution of complex magnetic nanostructures. These ferromagnetic nanostructures represent an interesting combination of shape anisotropy and magnetic characteristics.

Magnetic Co@g-C3N4 Core-Shells on rGO Sheets for Momentum Transfer with Catalytic Activity toward Continuous-Flow Hydrogen Generation

Magnetic core-shell structures provide abundant opportunities for the construction of multifunctional composites. In this article, magnetic core-shells were fabricated with Co nanoparticles (NPs) as cores and g-C3N4 as shells. In the fabrication process, the Co@g-C3N4 core-shells were anchored onto the rGO nanosheets to form a Co@g-C3N4-rGO composite (CNG-I). For hydrogen generation from the hydrolysis of NaBH4 or NH3BH3, the Co NP cores act as catalytic active sites. The g-C3N4 shells protect Co NPs cores from aggregating or growing. The connection between Co NPs and rGO was strengthened by the g-C3N4 shells to prevent them from leaching or flowing away. The g-C3N4 shells also work as a cocatalyst for hydrogen generation. The magnetism of Co NPs and the shape of rGO nanosheets achieve effective momentum transfer in the external magnetic field. In the batch reactor, a higher catalytic activity was obtained for CNG-I in self-stirring mode than in magneton stirring mode. In the continuous-flow process, stable hydrogen generation was carried out with CNG-I being fixed and propelled by the external magnetic field. The separation film is unnecessary because of magnetic momentum transfer. This idea of the composite design and magnetic momentum transfer will be useful for the development of both hydrogen generation and multifunctional composite materials.

Magnetic Nanoparticles: Material Engineering and Emerging Applications in Lithography and Biomedicine

We present an interdisciplinary overview of material engineering and emerging applications of iron oxide nanoparticles. We discuss material engineering of nanoparticles in the broadest sense, emphasizing size and shape control, large-area self-assembly, composite/hybrid structures, and surface engineering. This is followed by a discussion of several non-traditional, emerging applications of iron oxide nanoparticles, including nanoparticle lithography, magnetic particle imaging, magnetic guided drug delivery, and positive contrast agents for magnetic resonance imaging. We conclude with a succinct discussion of the pharmacokinetics pathways of iron oxide nanoparticles in the human body -- an important and required practical consideration for any in vivo biomedical application, followed by a brief outlook of the field.

Linker-free conjugation and specific cell targeting of antibody functionalized iron-oxide nanoparticles

Specific targeting is a key step to realize the full potential of iron oxide nanoparticles in biomedical applications, especially tumor-associated diagnosis and therapy. Here, we developed anti-GD2 antibody conjugated iron oxide nanoparticles for highly efficient neuroblastoma cell targeting. The antibody conjugation was achieved through an easy, linker-free method based on catechol reactions. The targeting efficiency and specificity of the antibody-conjugated nanoparticles to GD2-positive neuroblastoma cells were confirmed by flow cytometry, fluorescence microscopy, Prussian blue staining and transmission electron microscopy. These detailed studies indicated that the receptor-recognition capability of the antibody was fully retained after conjugation and the conjugated nanoparticles quickly attached to GD2-positive cells within four hours. Interestingly, longer treatment (12 h) led the cell membrane-bound nanoparticles to be internalized into cytosol, either by directly penetrating the cell membrane or escaping from the endosomes. Last but importantly, the uniquely designed functional surfaces of the nanoparticles allow easy conjugation of other bioactive molecules.

Bulky adamantanethiolate and cyclohexanethiolate ligands favor smaller gold nanoparticles with altered discrete sizes

Use of bulky ligands (BLs) in the synthesis of metal nanoparticles (NPs) gives smaller core sizes, sharpens the size distribution, and alters the discrete sizes. For BLs, the highly curved surface of small NPs may facilitate growth, but as the size increases and the surface flattens, NP growth may terminate when the ligand monolayer blocks BLs from transporting metal atoms to the NP core. Batches of thiolate-stabilized Au NPs were synthesized using equimolar amounts of 1-adamantanethiol (AdSH), cyclohexanethiol (CySH), or n-hexanethiol (C6SH). The bulky CyS- and AdS-stabilized NPs have smaller, more monodisperse sizes than the C6S-stabilized NPs. As the bulkiness increases, the near-infrared luminescence intensity increases, which is characteristic of small Au NPs. Four new discrete sizes were measured by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry, Au(30)(SAd)(18), Au(39)(SAd)(23), Au(65)(SCy)(30), and Au(67)(SCy)(30). No Au(25)(SAd)(18) was observed, which suggests that this structure would be too sterically crowded. Use of BLs may also lead to the discovery of new discrete sizes in other systems.

Tailored magnetic nanoparticles for optimizing magnetic fluid hyperthermia

Magnetic Fluid Hyperthermia (MFH) is a promising approach towards adjuvant cancer therapy that is based on the localized heating of tumors using the relaxation losses of iron oxide magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) in alternating magnetic fields (AMF). In this study, we demonstrate optimization of MFH by tailoring MNP size to an applied AMF frequency. Unlike conventional aqueous synthesis routes, we use organic synthesis routes that offer precise control over MNP size (diameter ∼10 to 25 nm), size distribution, and phase purity. Furthermore, the particles are successfully transferred to the aqueous phase using a biocompatible amphiphilic polymer, and demonstrate long-term shelf life. A rigorous characterization protocol ensures that the water-stable MNPs meet all the critical requirements: (1) uniform shape and monodispersity, (2) phase purity, (3) stable magnetic properties approaching that of the bulk, (4) colloidal stability, (5) substantial shelf life, and (6) pose no significant in vitro toxicity. Using a dedicated hyperthermia system, we then identified that 16 nm monodisperse MNPs (σ-0.175) respond optimally to our chosen AMF conditions (f = 373 kHz, H₀ = 14 kA/m); however, with a broader size distribution (σ-0.284) the Specific Loss Power (SLP) decreases by 30%. Finally, we show that these tailored MNPs demonstrate maximum hyperthermia efficiency by reducing viability of Jurkat cells in vitro, suggesting our optimization translates truthfully to cell populations. In summary, we present a way to intrinsically optimize MFH by tailoring the MNPs to any applied AMF, a required precursor to optimize dose and time of treatment.

Low sensitivity of acoustic breathing mode frequency in Co nanocrystals upon change in nanocrystallinity

Cobalt nanocrystals (NCs) with narrow size distribution and polycrystalline structure in their native form are synthesized in reverse micelles. After annealing at 350 °C, these NCs are transformed into single crystalline phase with hexagonal close-packed structure. The vibrational dynamics of NCs differing by their nanocrystallinity is studied by femtosecond pump-probe spectroscopy. By recording the differential reflectivity signal in the native and annealed Co NCs, the frequency of their fundamental breathing acoustic mode can be measured in the time domain. A small decrease of the breathing mode frequency is observed in single crystalline Co NCs compared to that measured in polycrystals, indicating low sensitivity of their fundamental radial mode upon change in crystallinity. This result is in agreement with predictions from calculations using the resonant ultrasound approach.

Water-soluble iron oxide nanoparticles with high stability and selective surface functionality

The water dispensability and stability of high quality iron oxide nanoparticles synthesized in organic solvents are major issues for biomedical and biological applications. In this paper, a versatile approach for preparing water-soluble iron oxide nanoparticles with great stability and selective surface functionality (-COOH, -NH(2), or -SH) was demonstrated. The hydrophobic nanoparticles were first synthesized by the thermal decomposition of an iron oleate complex in organic solvent. Subsequently, the hydrophobic coatings of nanoparticles were replaced with poly(acrylic acid) , polyethylenimine, or glutathione, yielding charged nanoparticles in aqueous solution. Two parameters were found to be critical for obtaining highly stable nanoparticle dispersions: the original coating and the surfactant-to-nanoparticle ratio. These charged nanoparticles exhibited different stabilities in biological buffers, which were directly influenced by the surface coatings. This report will provide significant practical value in exploring the biological or biomedical applications of iron oxide nanoparticles.

Biomedical Nanomagnetics: A Spin Through Possibilities in Imaging, Diagnostics, and Therapy

Biomedical nanomagnetics is a multidisciplinary area of research in science, engineering and medicine with broad applications in imaging, diagnostics and therapy. Recent developments offer exciting possibilities in personalized medicine provided a truly integrated approach, combining chemistry, materials science, physics, engineering, biology and medicine, is implemented. Emphasizing this perspective, here we address important issues for the rapid development of the field, i.e., magnetic behavior at the nanoscale with emphasis on the relaxation dynamics, synthesis and surface functionalization of nanoparticles and core-shell structures, biocompatibility and toxicity studies, biological constraints and opportunities, and in vivo and in vitro applications. Specifically, we discuss targeted drug delivery and triggered release, novel contrast agents for magnetic resonance imaging, cancer therapy using magnetic fluid hyperthermia, in vitro diagnostics and the emerging magnetic particle imaging technique, that is quantitative and sensitive enough to compete with established imaging methods. In addition, the physics of self-assembly, which is fundamental to both biology and the future development of nanoscience, is illustrated with magnetic nanoparticles. It is shown that various competing energies associated with self-assembly converge on the nanometer length scale and different assemblies can be tailored by varying particle size and size distribution. Throughout this paper, while we discuss our recent research in the broad context of the multidisciplinary literature, we hope to bridge the gap between related work in physics/chemistry/engineering and biology/medicine and, at the same time, present the essential concepts in the individual disciplines. This approach is essential as biomedical nanomagnetics moves into the next phase of innovative translational research with emphasis on development of quantitative in vivo imaging, targeted and triggered drug release, and image guided therapy including validation of delivery and therapy response.

The critical role of surfactants in the growth of cobalt nanoparticles

We report a combined experimental and computational study on the critical role of surfactants in the nucleation and growth of Co nanoparticles synthesized by chemical routes. By varying the surfactant species, Co nanoparticles of different morphologies under similar reaction conditions (e.g., temperature and Co-precursor concentration) were produced. Depending on the surfactant species, the growth of Co nanoparticles followed three different growth pathways. For example, with surfactants oleic acid (OA) and trioctylphosphine oxide (TOPO) used in combination, Co nanoparticles followed a diffusional growth pathway, leading to single crystalline nanoparticles. Multiple-grained nanoparticles, through an aggregation process, were formed with the combination of surfactants OA and dioctylamine (DOA). Further, an Ostwald ripening process was observed in the case of TOPO alone. Complementary electronic structure calculations were used to predict the optimized Co-surfactant complex structures and to quantify the binding energy between the surfactants (ligands) and the Co atoms. These calculations were further applied to predict the Co nanoparticle nucleation and growth processes based on the stability of Co-surfactant complexes.

Dual magnetic-/temperature-responsive nanoparticles for microfluidic separations and assays

A stimuli-responsive magnetic nanoparticle system for diagnostic target capture and concentration has been developed for microfluidic lab card settings. Telechelic poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAAm) polymer chains were synthesized with dodecyl tails at one end and a reactive carboxylate at the opposite end by the reversible addition fragmentation transfer technique. These PNIPAAm chains self-associate into nanoscale micelles that were used as dimensional confinements to synthesize the magnetic nanoparticles. The resulting superparamagnetic nanoparticles exhibit a gamma-Fe2O3 core ( approximately 5 nm) with a layer of carboxylate-terminated PNIPAAm chains as a corona on the surface. The carboxylate group was used to functionalize the magnetic nanoparticles with biotin and subsequently with streptavidin. The functionalized magnetic nanoparticles can be reversibly aggregated in solution as the temperature is cycled through the PNIPAAm lower critical solution temperature (LCST). While the magnetophoretic mobility of the individual nanoparticles below the LCST is negligible, the aggregates formed above the LCST are large enough to respond to an applied magnetic field. The magnetic nanoparticles can associate with biotinylated targets as individual particles, and then subsequent application of a combined temperature increase and magnetic field can be used to magnetically separate the aggregated particles onto the poly(ethylene glycol)-modified polydimethylsiloxane channel walls of a microfluidic device. When the magnetic field is turned off and the temperature is reversed, the captured aggregates redisperse into the channel flow stream for further downstream processing. The dual magnetic- and temperature-responsive nanoparticles can thus be used as soluble reagents to capture diagnostic targets at a controlled time point and channel position. They can then be isolated and released after the nanoparticles have captured target molecules, overcoming the problem of low magnetophoretic mobility of the individual particle while retaining the advantages of a high surface to volume ratio and faster diffusive properties during target capture.

Seven-Nanometer Hexagonal Close Packed Cobalt Nanocrystals for High-Temperature Magnetic Applications through a Novel Annealing Process

Seven-nanometer cobalt nanocrystals are synthesized by colloidal chemistry. Gentle annealing induces a direct structural transition from a low crystalline state to the hexagonal close packed (hcp) phase without changing the size, size distribution, and the lauric acid passivating layer. The hcp structured nanocrystals can be easily redispersed in solvent for further application and processing. We found that the magnetization at saturation and the magnetic anisotropy are strongly modified through the annealing process. Monolayer self-assembly of the hcp cobalt nanocrystals is obtained, and due to the dipolar interaction, ferromagnetic behavior close to room temperature has been observed. This work demonstrates a novel approach for obtaining small size hcp structured cobalt magnetic nanocrystals for many technological applications.