Study of Energy Transfer from 7-Amino Coumarin Donors to the Rhodamine 6G Acceptor in Lecithin Vesicles and Sodium Taurocholate−Lecithin Mixed Aggregates

Addressing the Superior Drug Delivery Performance of Bilosomes─A Microscopy and Fluorescence Study

The global health scenario in present times has raised human awareness about drug delivery strategies. Among colloidal drug delivery vehicles, vesicular nanocarriers such as liposomes and niosomes are popular. However, liposomes and niosomes get disrupted in the harsh environment of the gastrointestinal tract. In this context, the drug delivery community has reported the superior performance of vesicles containing bile salts, that is, bilosomes. The present work attempts to examine the structural/morphological aspects underlying the superior performance of bilosomes. Optical microscopy, electron microscopy, and light scattering give a definite proof of the enhanced stability of bilosomes compared to niosomes, both prepared from the same amphiphilic molecule. Fluorescence probing of the vesicles provides detailed insight into the bilayer characteristics and the differences between bilosomes and niosomes. Fluorescence resonance energy transfer studies lend further support to the findings that bilosomes have a more flexible bilayer structure than niosomes. The entrapment efficiency of the vesicles for the well-known antioxidant curcumin (whose bioavailability is a matter of concern due to low water solubility) was also studied. Bilosomes show higher curcumin entrapment efficiency than niosomes. For use in drug delivery, one needs to establish a trade-off between cargo/drug entrapment and release. Thus, a flexible bilayer structure is an advantage.

Jumali MH, AlSalhi MS, Qaid SMH, Fatehmulla A, Mujamammi WM, Ghaithan HM. Tuning Photophysical Properties of Donor/Acceptor Hybrid Thin- Film via Addition of SiO2/TiO2 Nanocomposites

The influence of SiO₂/TiO₂ nanocomposites (STNCs) content on non-radiative energy transfer (Förster-type) from poly (9,9′-dioctylfluorene-2,7-diyl) (PFO) to poly [2-methoxy-5-(2-ethylhexyloxy)-1,4-phenylenevinylene] (MEH-PPV) using steady-state and time-resolved photoluminescence spectroscopies was investigated at room temperature. The improved energy transfer from PFO to MEH-PPV upon an increment of the STNCs was achieved by examining absorbance, emission (PL) and photoluminescence excitation (PLE) spectra. The shorter values of the quantum yield (φ_DA) and lifetime (τ_DA) of the PFO in the hybrid thin films compared with the pure PFO, indicating efficient energy transfer from PFO to MEH-PPV with the increment of STNCs in the hybrid. The energy transfer parameters can be tuned by increment of the STNCs in the hybrid of PFO/MEH-PPV. The Stern–Volmer value (k_SV), quenching rate value (k_q), Förster radius (R₀), distance between the molecules of PFO and MEH-PPV (R_DA), energy transfer lifetime (τ_ET), energy transfer rate (k_ET), total decay rate of the donor (TDR), critical concentration (A_o), and conjugation length (A_π) were calculated. The gradually increasing donor lifetime and decreasing acceptor lifetime, upon increasing the STNCs content, prove the increase in conjugation length and meanwhile enhance in the energy transfer.

Energy transduction through FRET in self-assembled soft nanostructures based on surfactants/polymers: current scenario and prospects

The self-assembled systems of surfactants/polymers, which are capable of supporting energy funneling between fluorophores, have recently gained significant attraction. Surfactant and polymeric micelles form nanoscale structures spanning a radius of 2-10 nm are generally suitable for the transduction of energy among fluorophores. These systems have shown great potential in Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) due to their unique characteristics of being aqueous based, tendency to remain self-assembled, spontaneous formation, tunable nature, and responsiveness to different external stimuli. This review presents current developments in the field of energy transfer, particularly the multi-step FRET processes in the self-assembled nanostructures of surfactants/polymers. The part one of this review presents a background and brief overview of soft systems and discusses certain aspects of the self-assemblies of surfactants/polymers and their co-solubilization property to bring fluorophores to close proximity to transduce energy. The second part of this review deals with single-step and multi-step FRET in the self-assemblies of surfactants/polymers and links FRET systems with advanced smart technologies including multicolor formation, data encryption, and artificial antenna systems. This review also discusses the diverse examples in the literature to present the emerging applications of FRET. Finally, the prospects regarding further improvement of FRET in self-assembled soft systems are outlined.

Stabilization of indocyanine green dye in polymeric micelles for NIR-II fluorescence imaging and cancer treatment

One of the most commonly used near infrared (NIR) dyes is indocyanine green (ICG), which has been extensively used for NIR bioimaging, photothermal and photodynamic therapy. However, upon excitation this dye can react with molecular oxygen to form singlet oxygen (SO), which can then cleave ICG to form non-fluorescent debris. In order to reduce the reaction between ICG and oxygen, we used energy transfer (ET) between the former and the NIR dye IR-1061. The two dyes were encapsulated in micelles composed of biocompatible poly(ethylene glycol)-block-poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL-PEG). Micelles were characterized for their size using dynamic light scattering (DLS) and were found to measure about 35 nm in diameter. Fluorescence emission measurements were conducted to show that the stability of ICG against photodecomposition is increased. Moreover, this increased stability allows the encapsulated dye to generate more heat and for a longer time, compared to its free form. Studies with a SO indicator showed that as more IR-1061 is added to the micelles, less SO is produced. These results show how by changing the amount of added IR-1061 it is possible to tune the heat and SO generated by the system. Cell viability studies demonstrated that while particles were nontoxic under physiological conditions, upon 808 nm irradiation they become potent at eradicating MCF7 cancer cells. Moreover, it was demonstrated that both the increase of temperature and the creation of decomposition debris play a role in the cytotoxic efficacy of the micelles. Dye-loaded micelles that were injected to live mice showed bright fluorescence in the over 1000 nm NIR (OTN-NIR) region, allowing for visualization of blood vessels and internal organs. Most importantly, the encapsulated dyes remained stable for over 30 minutes, gradually accumulating in the liver and spleen. The presence of IR-1061 in addition to the heat-generating dye ICG allowed for simultaneous temperature modification and monitoring. We were able to assess the change in temperature by measuring the change in the fluorescence intensity of IR-1061 in the OTN-NIR region, a range with deep penetration of living tissues. These features illustrate the potential use of ICG/IR-1061 in PCL-PEG micelles as promising candidates for cancer treatment and diagnosis.

A simulation study on the influence of energy migration and relative interaction strengths of homo- and hetero-FRET on the net FRET efficiency

Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) is a powerful method for probing biomolecular conformations and dynamics in bulk as well as at a single-molecule level. FRET utilizes non-radiative mechanisms to transfer energy between fluorophores, donor and acceptor when placed in close proximity. The FRET efficiency has a strong distance dependence and serves as a direct read-out for molecular interaction. In case of a significant overlap of donor emission and absorption spectra, the excited state energy can be exchanged between the identical donors in close proximity, which eventually migrates back and forth until it gets dissipated. This form of energy transfer is called energy migration or homo-FRET. Here, we have simulated FRET efficiency by considering the donor-donor interaction strength (ξ_DD) and donor-acceptor interaction strength (ξ_DA) under conditions of non-uniform distribution of molecules. Our earlier studies indicate that energy migration modulate the FRET efficiency for various values of ξ_DD and ξ_DA. We, therefore, determined the limiting values of acceptor concentration (C_LA) that will allow the determination of FRET efficiency in the absence and presence of energy migration. Taken together, our study optimizes the conditions for meaningful FRET efficiency for a given FRET pair for better reporting of molecular interactions.

White-Light Emission of Dye-Doped Polymer Submicronic Fibers Produced by Electrospinning

Lighting and display technologies are evolving at tremendous rates nowadays; new device architectures based on new, microscopic building blocks are being developed. Besides high light-emission efficiencies, qualities including low cost, low environmental impact, flexibility, or lightweightness are sought for developing new types of devices. Electrospun polymer fibers represent an interesting type of such microscopic structures that can be employed in developing new functionalities. White-light-emitting fiber mats were prepared by the electrospinning of different dye-doped polymer solutions. Two approaches were used in order to obtain white-light emissions: the overlapping of single-dye-doped electrospun fiber mats, and the electrospinning of mixtures of different ratios of single-dye-doped polymer solutions. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to investigate the morphologies of the electrospun fibers with diameters ranging between 300 nm and 1 µm. Optical absorption and photoluminescence (PL) were evaluated for single-dye-doped submicronic fiber mats, for overlapping mats, and for fiber mats obtained from different compositions of mixtures. Depending on the ratios of the mixtures of different dyes, the luminance was balanced between blue and red emissions. Commission Internationale de L'Eclairage (CIE) measurements depict this fine-tuning of the colors' intensities, and the right composition for white-light emission of the submicronic fiber mats was found.

Elucidating endotoxin-biomolecule interactions with FRET: extending the frontiers of their supramolecular complexation

Endotoxin has been one of the topical chemical contaminants of major concern to researchers, especially in the field of bioprocessing. This major concern of researchers stems from the fact that the presence of Gram-negative bacterial endotoxin in intracellular products is unavoidable and requires complex downstream purification steps. For instance, endotoxin interacts with recombinant proteins, peptides, antibodies and aptamers and these interactions have formed the foundation for most biosensors for endotoxin detection. It has become imperative for researchers to engineer reliable means/techniques to detect, separate and remove endotoxin, without compromising the quality and quantity of the end-product. However, the underlying mechanism involved during endotoxin-biomolecule interaction is still a gray area. The use of quantitative molecular microscopy that provides high resolution of biomolecules is highly promising, hence, may lead to the development of improved endotoxin detection strategies in biomolecule preparation. Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) spectroscopy is one of the emerging most powerful tools compatible with most super-resolution techniques for the analysis of molecular interactions. However, the scope of FRET has not been well-exploited in the analysis of endotoxin-biomolecule interaction. This article reviews endotoxin, its pathophysiological consequences and the interaction with biomolecules. Herein, we outline the common potential ways of using FRET to extend the current understanding of endotoxin-biomolecule interaction with the inference that a detailed understanding of the interaction is a prerequisite for the design of strategies for endotoxin identification and removal from protein milieus.

Investigating the molecular and aggregated states of a drug molecule rutaecarpine using spectroscopy, microscopy, crystallography and computational studies

The present study demonstrates the aggregation behavior of rutaecarpine and the effect of surface active ionic liquids on the dissociation of the aggregates.

Unusual H-type aggregation of coumarin-481 dye in polar organic solvents

Coumarin-481 (C481) dye shows intriguing time-resolved (TR) fluorescence behavior in polar organic solvents of both protic and aprotic nature, namely, ethanol (EtOH) and acetonitrile (ACN), demonstrating the presence of multiple emitting species in the solution. Following concentration-dependent and wavelength-dependent TR fluorescence measurements and the time-resolved emission spectra (TRES) and time-resolved area-normalized emission spectra (TRANES) subsequently constructed using wavelength dependent decay parameters, we convincingly conclude that in the studied solvents a part of the dissolved dye undergoes H-type of aggregation, even at a very low dye concentration. This is quite an unusual finding because the dye C481 apparently shows reasonably good solubility in these organic solvents. As the TR measurements indicate, major contribution in the fluorescence decays is due to monomeric dye, having reasonably short lifetime (∼0.64-0.68 ns), which is in accordance with the conversion of fluorescent intramolecular charge transfer (ICT) state to nonfluorescent twisted intramolecular charge transfer (TICT) state suggested for the dye in high polarity solvents, causing an efficient nonradiative deexcitation. The minor contributions arising from the aggregated dyes show its clear presence in the decays at the blue edge of the emission spectra and have relatively longer lifetimes (∼1.2-5.2 ns) because the steric hindrance caused by the stacked dyes resists the ICT to TICT conversion. Aggregation of C481 dye as observed in the present study in polar organic solvents is an intriguing finding, as the dye is a widely used fluorescent probe for various photochemical studies, where overlooking such aggregation can mislead the observed results.

Development of a DNA sensor using a molecular logic gate

This communication reports the increase in fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) efficiency between two laser dyes in the presence of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Two types of molecular logic gates have been designed where DNA acts as input signal and fluorescence intensity of different bands are taken as output signal. Use of these logic gates as a DNA sensor has been demonstrated.

The effect of membrane fluidity on FRET parameters: an energy transfer study inside small unilamellar vesicle

The fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) in a lipid bilayer system containing two different donors and one common acceptor at below and above transition temperature has been studied and all the FRET parameters are analyzed using steady state and time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy. Using dynamic light scattering measurement, we have followed the process of preparation of small unilamellar vesicles, and by following the FRET parameters of C-153-Rh6G and C-151-Rh6G pairs inside SUVs at 16 °C and 33 °C (T(m) = 23.9 °C) we have noticed that there is greater effect of temperature on the FRET parameters in case of the C-153-Rh6G pair than that of the C-151-Rh6G pair. Finally we have concluded that this difference is due to their different location inside the lipid bilayer in which fluidity of the long alkyl chain markedly affects the FRET parameters for C-153-Rh6G pair embedded inside a small unilamellar vesicle of size 20-50 nm.

The use of coumarins as environmentally-sensitive fluorescent probes of heterogeneous inclusion systems

Coumarins, as a family of molecules, exhibit a wide range of fluorescence emission properties. In many cases, this fluorescence is extremely sensitive to the local environment of the molecule, especially the local polarity and microviscosity. In addition, coumarins show a wide range of size, shape, and hydrophobicity. These properties make them especially useful as fluorescent probes of heterogeneous environments, such as supramolecular host cavities, micelles, polymers and solids. This article will review the use of coumarins to probe such heterogeneous systems using fluorescence spectroscopy.

Quantitating the association of charged molecules with ionic micelles

We have studied micelles comprised of cationic (CTAB) and anionic (SDS) surfactants through the interactions of solution phase anionic disodium fluorescein (DSF) and cationic rhodamine 110 (R110) dyes with perylene sequestered within the micelles. Fluorescence lifetime measurements monitor energy transfer between the nonpolar optical donor within the micelle and ionic probes in the surrounding solution. The efficiency of this process is mediated by the extent to which the ionic dyes interact with the micelle palisade layer, and our fluorescence lifetime data allow us to determine the association constants for acceptor-micelle interactions.

Ultrafast fluorescence resonance energy transfer in a micelle

Ultrafast fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) from coumarin 153 (C153) to rhodamine 6G (R6G) is studied in a neutral PEO(20)-PPO(70)-PEO(20) triblock copolymer (P123) micelle and an anionic micelle (sodium dodecyl sulfate, SDS) using a femtosecond up-conversion setup. Time constants of FRET were determined from the rise time of the acceptor emission. It is shown that a micelle increases efficiency of FRET by holding the donor and the acceptor at a close distance (intramicellar FRET) and also by tuning the donor and acceptor energies. It is demonstrated that in the P123 micelle, intramicellar FRET (i.e., donor and acceptor in same micelle) occurs in 1.2 and 24 ps. In SDS micelle, there are two ultrafast components (0.7 and 13 ps) corresponding to intramicellar FRET. The role of diffusion is found to be minor in the ultrafast components of FRET. We also detected a much longer component (1000 ps) for intramicellar FRET in the larger P123 micelle.