Cyclodextrin-based self-assembled nanotubes at the water/air interface

Rings, Hexagons, Hetals, and Dipolar Moment Sink-Sources: The Fanciful Behavior of Water around Cyclodextrin Complexes

The basket-like geometry of cyclodextrins (CDs), with a cavity able to host hydrophobic groups, makes these molecules well suited for a large number of fundamental and industrial applications. Most of the established CD-based applications rely on trial and error studies, often ignoring key information at the atomic level that could be employed to design new products and to optimize their use. Computational simulations are well suited to fill this gap, especially in the case of CD systems due to their low number of degrees of freedom compared with typical macromolecular systems. Thus, the design and validation of solid and efficient methods to simulate and analyze CD-based systems is key to contribute to this field. The behavior of supramolecular complexes critically depends on the media where they are embedded, so the detailed characterization of the solvent is required to fully understand these systems. In the present work, we use the inclusion complex formed by two α-CDs and one sodium dodecyl sulfate molecule to test eight different parameterizations of the GROMOS and AMBER force fields, including several methods aimed to increase the conformational sampling in computational molecular dynamics simulation trajectories. The system proved to be extremely sensitive to the employed force field, as well as to the presence of a water/air interface. In agreement with previous experiments and in contrast to the results obtained with AMBER, the analysis of the simulations using GROMOS showed a quick adsorption of the complex to the interface as well as an extremely exotic behavior of the water molecules surrounding the structure both in the bulk aqueous solution and at the water surface. The chirality of the CD molecule seems to play an important role in this behavior. All together, these results are expected to be useful to better understand the behavior of CD-based supramolecular complexes such as adsorption or aggregation driving forces, as well as to introduce new methods able to speed up general MD simulations.

Highly viscoelastic films at the water/air interface: α-Cyclodextrin with anionic surfactants

This work showcases the remarkable viscoelasticity of films consisting of α-cyclodextrin (α-CD) and anionic surfactants (S) at the water/air interface, the magnitude of which has not been observed in similar systems. The anionic surfactants employed are sodium salts of a homologous series of n-alkylsulfates (n = 8-14) and of dodecylsulfonate. Our hypothesis was that the very high viscoelasticity can be systematically related to the bulk and interfacial properties of the system. Through resolution of the bulk distribution of species using isothermal titration calorimetry, the high dilatational modulus is related to (α-CD)₂:S₁ inclusion complexes in the bulk with respect to both the bulk composition and temperature. Direct interfacial characterization of α-CD and sodium dodecylsulfate films at 283.15 K using ellipsometry and neutron reflectometry reveals that the most viscoelastic films consist of a highly ordered monolayer of 2:1 complexes with a minimum amount of any other component. The orientation of the complexes in the films and their driving force for adsorption are discussed in the context of results from molecular dynamics simulations. These findings open up clear potential for the design of new functional materials or molecular sensors based on films with specific mechanical, electrical, thermal, chemical, optical or even magnetic properties.

Interfacial rheological behaviors of inclusion complexes of cyclodextrin and alkanes

The transformation of cyclodextrins (CDs) and alkanes from separated monomers to inclusion complexes at the interface is illustrated by analyzing the evolution of interfacial tension along with the variation of interfacial area for an oscillating drop. Amphiphilic intermediates are formed by threading one CD molecule on one alkane molecule at the oil/aqueous interface. After that, the amphiphilic intermediates transform into non-amphiphilic supramolecules which further assemble through hydrogen bonding at the oil/aqueous interface to generate a rigid network. With the accumulation of supramolecules at the interface, microcrystals are formed at the interface. The supramolecules of dodecane@2α-CD grow into microrods which form an unconsolidated shell and gradually cover the drop. However, the microcrystals of dodecane@2β-CD are significantly smaller which fabricate into skin-like films at the interface. The amphiphilic intermediates during the transformation increase the feasibility of self-emulsification and the skin-like films enhance the stability of the emulsion. With these unique properties, CDs can be promising for application in hydrophobic drug delivery, food industry and enhanced oil recovery.

Complex Behavior of Aqueous α-Cyclodextrin Solutions. Interfacial Morphologies Resulting from Bulk Aggregation

The spontaneous aggregation of α-cyclodextrin (α-CD) molecules in the bulk aqueous solution and the interactions of the resulting aggregates at the liquid/air interface have been studied at 283 K using a battery of techniques: transmission electron microscopy, dynamic light scattering, dynamic surface tensiometry, Brewster angle microscopy, neutron reflectometry, and ellipsometry. We show that α-CD molecules spontaneously form aggregates in the bulk that grow in size with time. These aggregates adsorb to the liquid/air interface with their size in the bulk determining the adsorption rate. The material that reaches the interface coalesces laterally to form two-dimensional domains on the micrometer scale with a layer thickness on the nanometer scale. These processes are affected by the ages of both the bulk and the interface. The interfacial layer formed is not in fast dynamic equilibrium with the subphase as the resulting morphology is locked in a kinetically trapped state. These results reveal a surprising complexity of the parallel physical processes taking place in the bulk and at the interface of what might have seemed initially like a simple system.

STAND: Surface Tension for Aggregation Number Determination

Taking advantage of the extremely high dependence of surface tension on the concentration of amphiphilic molecules in aqueous solution, a new model based on the double equilibrium between free and aggregated molecules in the liquid phase and between free molecules in the liquid phase and those adsorbed at the air/liquid interface is presented and validated using literature data and fluorescence measurements. A key point of the model is the use of both the Langmuir isotherm and the Gibbs adsorption equation in terms of free molecules instead of the nominal concentration of the solute. The application of the model should be limited to non ionic compounds since it does not consider the presence of counterions. It requires several coupled nonlinear fittings for which we developed a software that is publicly available in our server as a web application. Using this tool, it is straightforward to get the average aggregation number of an amphiphile, the micellization free energy, the adsorption constant, the maximum surface excess (and so the minimum area per molecule), the distribution of solute in the liquid phase between free and aggregate species, and the surface coverage in only a couple of seconds, just by uploading a text file with surface tension vs concentration data and the corresponding uncertainties.

Phase Segregation at the Liquid-Air Interface Prior to Liquid-Liquid Equilibrium

Binary systems with partial miscibility segregate into two liquid phases when their overall composition lies within the interval defined by the saturation points; out of this interval, there is one single phase, either solvent-rich or solute-rich. In most systems, in the one-phase regions, surface tension decreases with increasing solute concentration due to solute adsorption at the liquid-air interface. Therefore, the solute concentration at the surface is higher than in the bulk, leading to the hypothesis that phase segregation starts at the liquid-air interface with the formation of two surface phases, before the liquid-liquid equilibrium. This phenomenon is called surface segregation and is a step toward understanding liquid segregation at a molecular level and detailing the constitution of fluid interfaces. Surface segregation of aqueous binary systems of alkyl acetates with partial miscibility was theoretically demonstrated by means of a thermodynamic stability test based on energy minimization. Experimentally, the coexistence of two surface regions was verified through Brewster's angle microscopy. The observations were further interpreted with the aid of molecular dynamics simulations, which show the diffusion of the acetates from the bulk toward the liquid-air interface, where acetates aggregate into acetate-rich domains.

Encapsulation of 4-hydroxy-3-methoxy benzoic acid and 4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxy benzoic acid with native and modified cyclodextrins

Inclusion complex formation of 4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzoic acid (HMBA) and 4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxybenzoic acid (HDMBA) with α-CD, β-CD, HP-α-CD and HP-β-CD were studied by absorption, steady state fluorescence, time resolved fluorescence, FT-IR, (1)H NMR and molecular modeling methods. The effect of the CDs with HMBA and HDMBA were studied in pH∼1, pH∼7 and pH∼10 buffer solutions. The study revealed that both hydroxybenzoic acids formed 1:1 complex with the four CDs. The theoretical values suggest that both guests are partially encapsulated into the CDs cavity. The hydroxy group is present in the interior part of the CD cavity and carboxyl group is present in the hydrophilic part of the CD cavity. Molecular modeling studies proved that (i) the negative Gibbs energy and enthalpy changes for the inclusion complexes indicated that the formation of these complexes were spontaneous and exothermic, (ii) hydrogen bonding interactions played a major role in the inclusion process, (iii) the dipole moment values for guests increased when they entered into the CDs cavities which is an indication of the increase of the polarity and the formation of complex and (iv) differences in binding energy and enthalpy change suggest that the β-CD formed more stable complex than α-CD.

Complexation of β-cyclodextrin with a gemini surfactant studied by isothermal titration microcalorimetry and surface tensiometry

We report on the inclusion complex formation of β-cyclodextrin (βCD) with a cocogem surfactant (counterion-coupled gemini surfactant; (bis(4-(2-alkyl)benzenesulfonate)-Jeffamine salt, abbreviated as ABSJ), studied by isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) and surface tension (SFT) measurements. We measured the critical micelle concentration (cmc) of ABSJ in water by the two experimental techniques in the temperature range 283-343 K, and determined the thermodynamic parameters of the complex formation directly by ITC and indirectly by the SFT. The stoichiometry (N), the binding constant (K), and the enthalpy of complexation were determined, and the Gibbs free energy and the entropy term were calculated from the experimental data. A novel method is presented for the determination of N and K by using surface tensiometry.

Physicochemical perspective of cyclodextrin nano and microaggregates

''Chemistry beyond the molecule'' is the nickname for supramolecular chemistry. This branch of study is based on molecular recognition that is host-guest chemistry. A number of potential hosts have been defined and applied in scores of studies. Among all potential hosts, cyclodextrins occupy a high position due to their characteristic solubilisation capability and biocompatibility. In the present article we are revisiting the host-guest aspects of cyclodextrins from a physicochemical perspective. We present details of formation and applications of cyclodextrin nanoaggregates induced by guest molecules, the concerned thermodynamics behind the process and also the effect of concentration of the guest molecules on the morphology of the aggregates. This article reviews the topic mainly from the spectroscopic point of view.

Versatility of cyclodextrins in self-assembly systems of amphiphiles

Recently, cyclodextrins (CDs) were found to play important yet complicated (or even apparently opposite sometimes) roles in self-assembly systems of amphiphiles or surfactants. Herein, we try to review and clarify the versatility of CDs in surfactant assembly systems by 1) classifying the roles played by CDs into two groups (modulator and building unit) and four subgroups (destructive and constructive modulators, amphiphilic and unamphiphilic building units), 2) comparing these subgroups, and 3) analyzing mechanisms. As a modulator, although CDs by themselves do not participate into the final surfactant aggregates, they can greatly affect the aggregates in two ways. In most cases CDs will destroy the aggregates by depleting surfactant molecules from the aggregates (destructive), or in certain cases CDs can promote the aggregates to grow by selectively removing the less-aggregatable surfactant molecules from the aggregates (constructive). As an amphiphilic building unit, CDs can be chemically (by chemical bonds) or physically (by host-guest interaction) attached to a hydrophobic moiety, and the resultant compounds act as classic amphiphiles. As an unamphiphilic building unit, CD/surfactant complexes or even CDs on their own can assemble into aggregates in an unconventional, unamphiphilic manner driven by CD-CD H-bonds. Moreover, special emphasis is put on two recently appeared aspects: the constructive modulator and unamphiphilic building unit.

Molecular mechanism of cyclodextrin mediated cholesterol extraction

The depletion of cholesterol from membranes, mediated by β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) is well known and documented, but the molecular details of this process are largely unknown. Using molecular dynamics simulations, we have been able to study the CD mediated extraction of cholesterol from model membranes, in particular from a pure cholesterol monolayer, at atomic resolution. Our results show that efficient cholesterol extraction depends on the structural distribution of the CDs on the surface of the monolayer. With a suitably oriented dimer, cholesterol is extracted spontaneously on a nanosecond time scale. Additional free energy calculations reveal that the CDs have a strong affinity to bind to the membrane surface, and, by doing so, destabilize the local packing of cholesterol molecules making their extraction favorable. Our results have implications for the interpretation of experimental measurements, and may help in the rational design of efficient CD based nano-carriers.

The ability of certain molecules to capture other molecules forming so-called inclusion complexes has a range of potential important applications in e.g. drug delivery and chemical sensing. Here we study the complexation of cholesterol by small oligosaccharide rings named cyclodextrins (CDs). Cholesterol is an essential lipid in the plasma cell membrane, and the ability of CDs to extract cholesterol is widely used in the biomedical field to control the level of cholesterol in the membrane. The molecular mechanism of this process, however, is still not resolved. Using a detailed computational model of cholesterol and CD, we have succeeded to simulate this extraction process. We observe that the CDs are rapidly binding to the membrane surface in a dimeric form, and, provided that the CD dimers are in a suitable orientation, cholesterol molecules are being extracted spontaneously. The cholesterol/CD inclusion complex remains adsorbed on the surface; our simulations predict that the rate limiting step for the actual transport of cholesterol is the desorption of the complex from the membrane. With a clearer understanding of the basic molecular mechanism of the CD mediated process of cholesterol extraction, we can begin to rationalize the design of more efficient CDs in numerous applications.

Structural characterization of micelles formed of cholesteryl-functionalized cyclodextrins

Amphiphilic cholesteryl 2,6-di-O-methyl-β-cyclodextrins (chol-DIMEB) can self-aggregate into spherical micelles of noteworthy potential for drug delivery. All-atom molecular dynamics simulations of chol-DIMEB micelles consisting of 3-24 monomers have been performed in aqueous solution. chol-DIMEB exhibits a pronounced tendency to self-assemble into core-shell structures. van der Waals interactions within the cholesteryl nucleus constitute the main driving force responsible for the formation of the micelle. The calculated radii of the hydrophobic core and of the hydrophilic shell for the micellar structure formed by 24 monomers agree well with the experiment. The cyclodextrin moieties are found to be exposed toward the aqueous medium and possess the appropriate flexibility to capture drugs in an effective fashion. Analysis of the solvent accessible surface area and hydration number indicates that the micelles are highly hydrosoluble species and can, therefore, enhance significantly the aqueous solubility of lipophilic drugs. In addition, the spatial structure of the micelles is suggestive of multiple potential drug binding sites. The present contribution unveils how micelles endowed with specific characteristics can form, while opening exciting perspectives for the design of novel micellar nanoparticles envisioned to be drug carriers of high potential.

Structure-activity relationship of cyclodextrin/biocidal double-tailed ammonium surfactant host-guest complexes: towards a delivery molecular mechanism?

In aqueous solution, the biocidal double-tailed cationic surfactant, di-n-decyl-dimethyl-ammonium chloride can form inclusion complexes with various cyclodextrins (alpha-CD, beta-CD, gamma-CD, HP-alpha-CD, HP-beta-CD and CM-beta-CD). A physicochemical study has been performed to investigate the association parameters of these host-guest complexes by combining the use of ammonium and chloride selective electrodes, NMR spectroscopy and molecular modeling. stoichiometries, equilibrium constants and geometries were determined by resorting to a specific algorithm. The antimicrobial activity of the encapsulated ammonium surfactant was compared with that of the free ammonium showing three different behaviors depending on the cyclodextrin. The close relationship between the complex structure and the biocidal activity is used to propose a delivery molecular mechanism.

PM-IRRAS assessment of the compression-mediated orientation of the nanocavity of a monoacylated beta-cyclodextrin in monolayers at the air-water interface

The structural orientation adopted along the compression-decompression isotherm by a monoacylated beta-cyclodextrin (C16-betaCD) at the air-water interface was assessed by polarization-modulation infrared reflection-adsorption spectroscopy (PM-IRRAS). The adoption of different orientations of the cyclic oligosaccharide unit, relative to the interfacial plane, was interpreted analyzing the PM-IRRAS band intensity ratios of specific vibrations corresponding to the cyclodextrin moiety as a function of the surface pressure for successive compression/decompression cycles. The spectroscopic analysis revealed that the cyclic oligosaccharide modifies its position under compression from one in which the plane of the cavity of the monoacylated beta-cyclodextrin lies almost parallel to the interface to another in which the plane of the cavity is perpendicular to the interface. Through the PM-IRRAS analysis, it was also possible to evidence the establishment of an intermolecular hydrogen bonding network that may play an important role in the dynamic properties of the monolayer packing. The hydrogen bonding network becomes more important with the increases of surface pressure, up to a molecular packing limit, and it imparts the surface properties of the film for future compression-decompression cycles.

A survey of the year 2007 literature on applications of isothermal titration calorimetry

Elucidation of the energetic principles of binding affinity and specificity is a central task in many branches of current sciences: biology, medicine, pharmacology, chemistry, material sciences, etc. In biomedical research, integral approaches combining structural information with in-solution biophysical data have proved to be a powerful way toward understanding the physical basis of vital cellular phenomena. Isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) is a valuable experimental tool facilitating quantification of the thermodynamic parameters that characterize recognition processes involving biomacromolecules. The method provides access to all relevant thermodynamic information by performing a few experiments. In particular, ITC experiments allow to by-pass tedious and (rarely precise) procedures aimed at determining the changes in enthalpy and entropy upon binding by van't Hoff analysis. Notwithstanding limitations, ITC has now the reputation of being the "gold standard" and ITC data are widely used to validate theoretical predictions of thermodynamic parameters, as well as to benchmark the results of novel binding assays. In this paper, we discuss several publications from 2007 reporting ITC results. The focus is on applications in biologically oriented fields. We do not intend a comprehensive coverage of all newly accumulated information. Rather, we emphasize work which has captured our attention with originality and far-reaching analysis, or else has provided ideas for expanding the potential of the method.

The influence of cosolvents on hydrophilic and hydrophobic interactions. Calorimetric studies of parent and alkylated cyclomaltooligosaccharides in concentrated aqueous solutions of ethanol or urea

Heats of dilution in water and in aqueous 7 mol kg(-1) urea and 3 mol kg(-1) ethanol of binary solutions containing cyclomaltohexaose, cyclomaltoheptaose, cyclomaltooctaose, 2-hydroxypropyl-cyclomaltohexaose (HPαCD), 2-hydroxypropyl-cyclomaltoheptaose (HPβCD), methyl-cyclomaltohexaose (MeαCD), methyl-cyclomaltoheptaose (MeβCD) and 2-hydroxypropyl-cyclomaltooctaose (HPγCD) have been determined at 298.15K by flow microcalorimetry. The purpose of this study is to gain information about the influence of urea and ethanol, which have different effects on water structure, on hydrophilic and hydrophobic interactions. The pairwise interaction coefficients of the virial expansion of the excess enthalpies were evaluated and compared to those previously obtained for binary solutions of cyclomaltohexaose and cyclomaltoheptaose. The particular behaviour of cyclomaltooligosaccharides in water is put in evidence with respect to that shown by simple oligosaccharides. The values of the interaction coefficients greatly change in dependence of the solvent medium. They are negative in water for unsubstituted cyclomaltooligosaccharides, and positive for the alkyl-substituted ones, thus marking the major role of the hydrophobic interactions. In concentrated aqueous ethanol, coefficients are negative, while they are positive in concentrated aqueous urea. Urea solvates the hydroxyl group provoking the attenuation of hydrophilic and hydrophobic interactions. Instead, the presence of the cosolvent ethanol, which lowers the relative permittivity of the medium, enhances the strength of hydrophilic interactions.

A small molecular size system giving unexpected surface effects: alpha-Cyclodextrin + sodium dodecyl sulfate in water

Maximum drop volumes (MDV) and the resultant surface tension values (sigma) of alpha-cyclodextrin (alpha-CD) + sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) aqueous mixtures have been determined over a broad concentration range of both solutes at 283.15, 293.15, 303.15, 313.15, and 323.15 K. Drops significantly larger than those of pure water (up to approximately 25% larger) were observed at low temperatures for solutions with [alpha-CD]/[SDS] concentration ratios, approximately > 2, producing unexpectedly high surface tension values. Our results indicate that at certain solute concentration ratios and temperatures, the drop volume method provides wrong values for equilibrium surface tensions. This is due to the high viscoelasticity of the surface film whose effect is important even though the injection rate of the drops was slow and the solutes molecular sizes are small.