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Shim Y. Computer simulation study of fluorocarbon phosphate surfactant based aqueous reverse micelle in supercritical CO 2: roles of surfactant functional groups, ionic strength, and phase changes in CO 2. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2020; 22:3434-3445. [PMID: 31984986 DOI: 10.1039/c9cp06613f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Structural and dynamic properties of an aqueous micelle organized from fluorocarbon phosphate surfactant molecules in supercritical carbon dioxide (CO2) are investigated via molecular dynamics computer simulations. The roles of the functional groups and ionic strength of the surfactants on the formation of reverse micelles in supercritical CO2, and related water dynamics characterized as translational and reorientational dynamics, are systematically demonstrated by employing three different phosphate-based surfactants paired with sodium cations. The strong electrostatic interactions between the phosphate head groups and sodium cations result in formation of an aqueous core inside the surfactant aggregates, where water molecules are bonded together with loss of the tetrahedral hydrogen bonded network found in bulk water. It is found that all the three surfactants with CO2-philic fluorocarbon double tails build up well-stabilized reverse micelles in supercritical CO2, avoiding direct contacts between CO2 and water molecules. Despite this, the surfactant with a carboxylic ester linkage between the phosphate head and fluorocarbon tail group tends to coordinate water molecules toward sustaining the inter-water hydrogen bonds, indicating better efficiency at covering the aqueous core with hydrophobic groups compared to one without a carboxylic ester group. As for water molecules confined in the reverse micelle, their translational and reorientational motions, and fluctuating dynamics of the inter-water hydrogen bonds, significantly slow down compared to bulk water at ambient temperature. The water dynamics become more restricted with an increase in ionic strength of the anionic surfactant; this is attributed to divalent surfactant heads and sodium cations being more tightly bound together with bonding to water compared to monovalent ones. Lastly, the structural and dynamic changes of the reverse micelle caused by a phase change in CO2 are monitored with gradually decreasing temperature and pressure from the supercritical to gaseous state for CO2. The average reverse micelle structure equilibrated in supercritical CO2 is found to remain stable over a time period of 0.2 ms through a depressurization process to gaseous CO2. We note that the diverse pathways of surfactant self-aggregation in gaseous CO2 could be controlled by the preceding solvation procedure in the supercritical regime which governs the final aggregated structures in gaseous CO2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Youngseon Shim
- CAE Group, Autonomous Material Development Laboratory, Samsung Advanced Institute of Technology, Samsung Electronics, Suwon, Gyeonggi 16678, Korea.
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2
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Nandi S, Parui S, Jana B, Bhattacharyya K. Local environment of organic dyes in an ionic liquid-water mixture: FCS and MD simulation. J Chem Phys 2018; 149:054501. [DOI: 10.1063/1.5027458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Somen Nandi
- Department of Physical Chemistry, Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science, Jadavpur, Kolkata 700032, India
| | - Sridip Parui
- Department of Physical Chemistry, Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science, Jadavpur, Kolkata 700032, India
| | - Biman Jana
- Department of Physical Chemistry, Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science, Jadavpur, Kolkata 700032, India
| | - Kankan Bhattacharyya
- Department of Physical Chemistry, Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science, Jadavpur, Kolkata 700032, India
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Bhopal, Bhopal 462066, Madhya Pradesh, India
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Wang M, Wang M, Rao N, Li J, Li J. Enhancement of CO2 capture performance of aqueous MEA by mixing with [NH2e-mim][BF4]. RSC Adv 2018; 8:1987-1992. [PMID: 35542589 PMCID: PMC9077461 DOI: 10.1039/c7ra11757d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2017] [Accepted: 12/12/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Alcohol amine solutions have a high absorption capacity and rate for CO2 capture, however, there are some shortcomings such as high energy-consumption and low stability. To enhance CO2 capture performance of aqueous MEA, a functional ionic liquid ([NH2e-mim][BF4]) was introduced based on the advantages for CO2 capture. Absorbents were prepared with the molar concentration ratio of [NH2e-mim][BF4] to the 30 vol% aqueous MEA of 0 : 10, 1 : 9, 2 : 8, 3 : 7, 4 : 6 and 6 : 4. The density and the viscosity of the investigated absorbents were measured and the effects of the molar fraction of [NH2e-mim][BF4] (nI) and temperature on CO2 absorption performance were investigated. CO2 desorption performance of the solvent at different temperatures was discussed. The stability performance of the absorbent with nI of 2 : 8 (I/M2:8) was examined by five consecutive cyclic tests. The results showed that for pure CO2, the I/M2:8 displayed the highest absorption performance at 303 K under 1 bar: a comparable CO2 absorption capacity of the 30 vol% aqueous MEA and a higher CO2 absorption rate at the later absorption stage. Moreover, with the increase of temperature, CO2 absorption capacity and rate decreased, while CO2 desorption efficiency and rate increased. 393 K was chosen as the optimum desorption temperature with the desorption efficiency of 99.31%. The introducing of IL contributed to CO2 desorption performance of the absorbents significantly. The properties (CO2 absorption capacity, mass loss, density and viscosity) of the I/M2:8 during the cycles suggested that the IL-MEA mixture had an excellent stability performance. Alcohol amine solutions have a high absorption capacity and rate for CO2 capture, however, there are some shortcomings such as high energy-consumption and low stability.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei Wang
- School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering
- Wuhan Polytechnic University
- Wuhan
- PR China
| | - Mingming Wang
- School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering
- Wuhan Polytechnic University
- Wuhan
- PR China
| | - Na Rao
- School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering
- Wuhan Polytechnic University
- Wuhan
- PR China
| | - Jiale Li
- School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering
- Wuhan Polytechnic University
- Wuhan
- PR China
| | - Jianfen Li
- School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering
- Wuhan Polytechnic University
- Wuhan
- PR China
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4
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Li T, Zhao Z, Zhang X. Molecular dynamics investigation of thermo-physical properties and hydrogen-bonds of 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium dimethylphosphate-water system. J Mol Liq 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molliq.2017.04.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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5
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Kim D, Park SW, Shim Y, Kim HJ, Jung Y. Excitation-energy dependence of solvation dynamics in room-temperature ionic liquids. J Chem Phys 2016; 145:044502. [PMID: 27475376 DOI: 10.1063/1.4955211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Influence of the excitation energy of a probe solute molecule on its solvation dynamics and emission spectrum in 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate (EMI(+)PF6 (-)) is studied via molecular dynamics simulations using a coarse-grained model description. By exciting the probe at different energies, each with an extremely narrow distribution, ensuing solvent relaxation and its dynamic variance are monitored using the isoconfigurational ensemble method. Resulting Stokes shift function, S(t), indicates that long-time solvent relaxation becomes slower with the decreasing excitation energy and approaches the equilibrium correlation function, C(t), of solvent fluctuations. This suggests that the system excited at the red-edge of the spectrum observes linear response better than that at the blue-edge. A detailed analysis of nonequilibrium trajectories shows that the effect of initial configurations on variance of relaxation dynamics is mainly confined to short times; it reaches a maximum around 0.1 ≲ t ≲ 1 ps and diminishes as time further increases. The influence of the initial velocity distribution, on the other hand, tends to grow with time and dominates the long-time variations of dynamics. The emission spectrum shows the red-edge effect in accord with previous studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daekeon Kim
- Department of Chemistry, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, South Korea
| | - Sang-Won Park
- Department of Chemistry, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, South Korea
| | - Youngseon Shim
- Department of Chemistry, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, South Korea
| | - Hyung J Kim
- Department of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, USA
| | - YounJoon Jung
- Department of Chemistry, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, South Korea
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6
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Wu EC, Kim HJ. MD Study of Stokes Shifts in Ionic Liquids: Temperature Dependence. J Phys Chem B 2016; 120:4644-53. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.6b00979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Eric C. Wu
- Department
of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States
| | - Hyung J. Kim
- Department
of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States
- School
of Computational Sciences, Korea Institute for Advanced Study, Seoul 02455, Korea
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Brinzer T, Berquist EJ, Ren Z, Dutta S, Johnson CA, Krisher CS, Lambrecht DS, Garrett-Roe S. Ultrafast vibrational spectroscopy (2D-IR) of CO2 in ionic liquids: Carbon capture from carbon dioxide's point of view. J Chem Phys 2015; 142:212425. [PMID: 26049445 DOI: 10.1063/1.4917467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The CO2ν3 asymmetric stretching mode is established as a vibrational chromophore for ultrafast two-dimensional infrared (2D-IR) spectroscopic studies of local structure and dynamics in ionic liquids, which are of interest for carbon capture applications. CO2 is dissolved in a series of 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium-based ionic liquids ([C4C1im][X], where [X](-) is the anion from the series hexafluorophosphate (PF6 (-)), tetrafluoroborate (BF4 (-)), bis-(trifluoromethyl)sulfonylimide (Tf2N(-)), triflate (TfO(-)), trifluoroacetate (TFA(-)), dicyanamide (DCA(-)), and thiocyanate (SCN(-))). In the ionic liquids studied, the ν3 center frequency is sensitive to the local solvation environment and reports on the timescales for local structural relaxation. Density functional theory calculations predict charge transfer from the anion to the CO2 and from CO2 to the cation. The charge transfer drives geometrical distortion of CO2, which in turn changes the ν3 frequency. The observed structural relaxation timescales vary by up to an order of magnitude between ionic liquids. Shoulders in the 2D-IR spectra arise from anharmonic coupling of the ν2 and ν3 normal modes of CO2. Thermal fluctuations in the ν2 population stochastically modulate the ν3 frequency and generate dynamic cross-peaks. These timescales are attributed to the breakup of ion cages that create a well-defined local environment for CO2. The results suggest that the picosecond dynamics of CO2 are gated by local diffusion of anions and cations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Brinzer
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pittsburgh, 219 Parkman Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260, USA
| | - Eric J Berquist
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pittsburgh, 219 Parkman Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260, USA
| | - Zhe Ren
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pittsburgh, 219 Parkman Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260, USA
| | - Samrat Dutta
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pittsburgh, 219 Parkman Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260, USA
| | - Clinton A Johnson
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pittsburgh, 219 Parkman Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260, USA
| | - Cullen S Krisher
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pittsburgh, 219 Parkman Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260, USA
| | - Daniel S Lambrecht
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pittsburgh, 219 Parkman Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260, USA
| | - Sean Garrett-Roe
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pittsburgh, 219 Parkman Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260, USA
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Ilyushin GD, Blatov VA. Modeling of self-organization processes in crystal-forming systems: Templated precursor nanoclusters T48 and the self-assembly of crystal structures of 15-crown-5, Na-FAU, 18-crown-6, Na-EMT, and Ca,Ba-TSC zeolites. RUSS J INORG CHEM+ 2015. [DOI: 10.1134/s0036023615040063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Yan F, Lartey M, Jariwala K, Bowser S, Damodaran K, Albenze E, Luebke DR, Nulwala HB, Smit B, Haranczyk M. Toward a Materials Genome Approach for Ionic Liquids: Synthesis Guided by Ab Initio Property Maps. J Phys Chem B 2014; 118:13609-20. [DOI: 10.1021/jp506972w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Fangyong Yan
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Michael Lartey
- National Energy Technology Laboratory, P.O. Box
10940, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15236, United States
| | - Kuldeep Jariwala
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Sage Bowser
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Pittsburgh, 219 Parkman Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260, United States
| | - Krishnan Damodaran
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Pittsburgh, 219 Parkman Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260, United States
| | - Erik Albenze
- National Energy Technology Laboratory, P.O. Box
10940, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15236, United States
- URS Corporation, P.O. Box 618, South
Park, Pennsylvania 15129, United States
| | - David R. Luebke
- National Energy Technology Laboratory, P.O. Box
10940, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15236, United States
| | - Hunaid B. Nulwala
- National Energy Technology Laboratory, P.O. Box
10940, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15236, United States
- Department
of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States
| | - Berend Smit
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
- Department
of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
- Institut des Sciences et Ingénierie Chimiques, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Maciej Haranczyk
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
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XU J, WANG S, YU W, XU Q, WANG W, YIN J. Molecular Dynamics Simulation for the Binary Mixtures of High Pressure Carbon Dioxide and Ionic Liquids. Chin J Chem Eng 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/s1004-9541(14)60006-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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11
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Kim D, Jeong D, Jung Y. Dynamic propensity as an indicator of heterogeneity in room-temperature ionic liquids. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2014; 16:19712-9. [DOI: 10.1039/c4cp01893a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Dynamic propensity of an RTIL system exhibits broad and asymmetric distributions, and spatial patterns of the dynamic propensity and mobility distribution are shown.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daekeon Kim
- Department of Chemistry
- Seoul National University
- Seoul, Korea
| | - Daun Jeong
- Department of Chemistry
- Seoul National University
- Seoul, Korea
| | - YounJoon Jung
- Department of Chemistry
- Seoul National University
- Seoul, Korea
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12
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Coarse-grained molecular dynamic simulations of selected thermophysical properties for 1-Butyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate. J Mol Liq 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molliq.2013.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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13
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Shim Y, Kim HJ. Dielectric Relaxation and Solvation Dynamics in a Room-Temperature Ionic Liquid: Temperature Dependence. J Phys Chem B 2013; 117:11743-52. [DOI: 10.1021/jp406353j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Youngseon Shim
- Samsung Advanced Institute of Technology, SEC, Yongin 446-712, Korea
| | - Hyung J. Kim
- Department
of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States
- School
of Computational Sciences, Korea Institute for Advanced Study, Seoul 130-722, Korea
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Terranova ZL, Corcelli SA. On the Mechanism of Solvation Dynamics in Imidazolium-Based Ionic Liquids. J Phys Chem B 2013; 117:15659-66. [DOI: 10.1021/jp406419y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Z. L. Terranova
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556,
United States
| | - S. A. Corcelli
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556,
United States
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15
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Yang Y, Yu L. Theoretical investigations of ferrocene/ferrocenium solvation in imidazolium-based room-temperature ionic liquids. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2013; 15:2669-83. [DOI: 10.1039/c2cp42876h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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16
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Zhang XX, Liang M, Ernsting NP, Maroncelli M. Complete Solvation Response of Coumarin 153 in Ionic Liquids. J Phys Chem B 2012; 117:4291-304. [DOI: 10.1021/jp305430a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xin-Xing Zhang
- Department of Physics, College
of Physical Science, Nankai University,
Tianjin, China
- Department
of Chemistry, Humboldt University, Berlin,
Germany
| | - Min Liang
- Department of Chemistry, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park,
Pennsylvania, United States
| | | | - Mark Maroncelli
- Department of Chemistry, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park,
Pennsylvania, United States
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Ilyushin GD, Blatov VA, Dem’yanets LN, Ivanov-Shits AK. Mechanism of structural phase transitions in the Li4GeO4-ZnGeO4 system: Computer modeling and identification of invariant nanocluster structures in Li4GeO4, LISICON Li6Zn(GeO4)2, and Li4Zn2(GeO4)2 (γ phase). RUSS J INORG CHEM+ 2012. [DOI: 10.1134/s0036023612020131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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18
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Roy D, Maroncelli M. Simulations of Solvation and Solvation Dynamics in an Idealized Ionic Liquid Model. J Phys Chem B 2012; 116:5951-70. [DOI: 10.1021/jp301359w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Durba Roy
- Department of Chemistry, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802,
United States
| | - Mark Maroncelli
- Department of Chemistry, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802,
United States
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Aparicio S, Atilhan M. Water effect on CO2 absorption for hydroxylammonium based ionic liquids: A molecular dynamics study. Chem Phys 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chemphys.2012.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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20
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Ilyushin GD. Cluster self-organization of silicate and germanate systems: Suprapolyhedral precursor nanoclusters and self-assembly of tetrahedral structures of the family A2T2O5 (A = Li, Na; T = Si, Ge): Li2T2O5, Li4Ge3SiO10, Li2Si2O5, and A2Si2O5. RUSS J INORG CHEM+ 2012. [DOI: 10.1134/s0036023612040109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Chen JJ, Li WW, Li XL, Yu HQ. Carbon dioxide capture by aminoalkyl imidazolium-based ionic liquid: a computational investigation. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2012; 14:4589-96. [DOI: 10.1039/c2cp23642g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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22
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Aparicio S, Atilhan M, Khraisheh M, Alcalde R, Fernández J. Study on Hydroxylammonium-Based Ionic Liquids. II. Computational Analysis of CO2 Absorption. J Phys Chem B 2011; 115:12487-98. [DOI: 10.1021/jp206210e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Mert Atilhan
- Chemical Engineering Department, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
| | | | - Rafael Alcalde
- Department of Chemistry, University of Burgos, 09001 Burgos, Spain
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