Study of the Structural Role of Gallium and Aluminum in 45S5 Bioactive Glasses by Molecular Dynamics Simulations

Structure and dissolution of silicophosphate glass

The solubility of P2O5–SiO2–Na2O–CaO glasses was suppressed by the coexistence of CaO and Na2O, attributed to the delocalization of the electron distribution of P in QP3 units coordinated to the six-fold-coordinated Si.

Structural origins of the Mixed Alkali Effect in Alkali Aluminosilicate Glasses: Molecular Dynamics Study and its Assessment

The comprehension of the nonlinear effects provided by mixed alkali effect (MAE) in oxide glasses is useful to optimize glass compositions to achieve specific properties that depend on the mobility of ions, such as the chemical durability, glass transition temperature, viscosity and ionic conductivity. Although molecular dynamics (MD) simulations have already been applied to investigate the MAE on silicates, less effort has been devoted to study such phenomenon in mixed alkali aluminosilicate glasses where alkali cations can act both as modifiers, forming non-bridging oxygens and percolation channels, and as charge compensator of the AlO4- units present in the network. Moreover, the ionic conductivity has not been computed yet; thus, the accuracy of the atomistic simulations in reproducing the MAE on the property is still open to question. In this work, we have validated five major interatomic potentials for the classical MD simulations by modelling the structure, density, glass transition temperature and ionic conductivity for three aluminosilicate glasses, (25 - x)Na2O - x(K2O) - 10(Al2O3) - 65(SiO2) (x = 0, 12.5, 25). It was observed that only the core-shell (CS) polarizable force field well reproduces the experimentally measured MAE on Tg and the ionic conductivity as well as the higher conductivity of single sodium aluminosilicate glass at low temperature and the higher conductivity of single potassium aluminosilicate glass at high temperature. The MAE is related to the suppression of jump events of the alkaline ions between dissimilar sites in the percolation channels consisting of both sodium and potassium ions as in the case of alkaline silicates. The superior reproducibility of the CS potential is originated from the larger and the flexible ring structures due to the smaller Si-O-Si inter-tetrahedra angle, creating appropriate percolation channels for ion conductivity. We also report detailed assessments for using the potential models including the CS potential for investigating MAE on aluminosilicates.

Ionic structure and transport properties of KF–NaF–AlF3 fused salt: a molecular dynamics study

Studying the ionic structure and transport properties of the KF–NaF–AlF₃ fused salt at the atomic level.

Structure and Crystallization of Alkaline-Earth Aluminosilicate Glasses: Prevention of the Alumina-Avoidance Principle

Aluminosilicate glasses are considered to follow the Al-avoidance principle, which states that Al-O-Al linkages are energetically less favorable, such that, if there is a possibility for Si-O-Al linkages to occur in a glass composition, Al-O-Al linkages are not formed. The current paper shows that breaching of the Al-avoidance principle is essential for understanding the distribution of network-forming AlO₄ and SiO₄ structural units in alkaline-earth aluminosilicate glasses. The present study proposes a new modified random network (NMRN) model, which accepts Al-O-Al linkages for aluminosilicate glasses. The NMRN model consists of two regions, a network structure region (NS-Region) composed of well-separated homonuclear and heteronuclear framework species and a channel region (C-Region) of nonbridging oxygens (NBOs) and nonframework cations. The NMRN model accounts for the structural changes and devitrification behavior of aluminosilicate glasses. A parent Ca- and Al-rich melilite-based CaO-MgO-Al₂O₃-SiO₂ (CMAS) glass composition was modified by substituting MgO for CaO and SiO₂ for Al₂O₃ to understand variations in the distribution of network-forming structural units in the NS-region and devitrification behavior upon heat treating. The structural features of the glass and glass-ceramics (GCs) were meticulously assessed by advanced characterization techniques including neutron diffraction (ND), powder X-ray diffraction (XRD), ²⁹Si and ²⁷Al magic angle spinning (MAS)-nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), and in situ Raman spectroscopy. ND revealed the formation of SiO₄ and AlO₄ tetrahedral units in all the glass compositions. Simulations of chemical glass compositions based on deconvolution of ²⁹Si MAS NMR spectral analysis indicate the preferred formation of Si-O-Al over Si-O-Si and Al-O-Al linkages and the presence of a high concentration of nonbridging oxygens leading to the formation of a separate NS-region containing both SiO₄ and AlO₄ tetrahedra (Si/Al) (heteronuclear) in addition to the presence of Al_[4]-O-Al_[4] bonds; this region coexists with a predominantly SiO₄-containing (homonuclear) NS-region. In GCs, obtained after heat treatment at 850 °C for 250 h, the formation of crystalline phases, as revealed from Rietveld refinement of XRD data, may be understood on the basis of the distribution of SiO₄ and AlO₄ structural units in the NS-region. The in situ Raman spectra of the GCs confirmed the formation of a Si/Al structural region, as well as indicating interaction between the Al/Si region and SiO₄-rich region at higher temperatures, leading to the formation of additional crystalline phases.

Highly-Bioreactive Silica-Based Mesoporous Bioactive Glasses Enriched with Gallium(III)

Beneficial effects in bone cell growth and antibacterial action are currently attributed to Ga3+ ions. Thus, they can be used to upgrade mesoporous bioactive glasses (MBGs), investigated for tissue engineering, whenever they released therapeutic amounts of gallium ions to the surrounding medium. Three gallium-enriched MBGs with composition (in mol %) xSiO₂-yCaO-zP₂O₅-5Ga₂O₃, being x = 70, y = 15, z = 10 for Ga_1; x = 80, y = 12, z = 3 for Ga_2; and x = 80, y = 15, z = 0 for Ga_3, were investigated and compared with the gallium-free 80SiO₂-15CaO-5P₂O₅ MBG (B). 29Si and 31P MAS NMR analyses indicated that Ga3+ acts as network modifier in the glass regions with higher polymerization degree and as network former in the zones with high concentration of classical modifiers (Ca2+ ions). Ga_1 and Ga_2 exhibited a quick in vitro bioactive response because they were coated by an apatite-like layer after 1 and 3 days in simulated body fluid. Although we have not conducted biological tests in this paper (cells or bacteria), Ga_1 released high but non-cytotoxic amounts of Ga3+ ions in Todd Hewitt Broth culture medium that were 140 times higher than the IC90 of Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteria, demonstrating its potential for tissue engineering applications.

Understanding the Formation of CaAl2Si2O8 in Melilite-Based Glass-Ceramics: Combined Diffraction and Spectroscopic Studies

An assessment is undertaken for the formation of anorthite crystalline phase in a melilite-based glass composition (CMAS: 38.7CaO-9.7MgO-12.9Al₂O₃-38.7SiO₂ mol %), used as a sealing material in solid oxide fuel cells, in view of the detrimental effect of anorthite on the sealing properties. Several advanced characterization techniques are employed to assess the material after prolonged heat treatment, including neutron powder diffraction (ND), X-ray powder diffraction (XRD), ²⁹Si and ²⁷Al magic-angle spinning nuclear magnetic resonance (MAS-NMR), and in situ Raman spectroscopy. ND, ²⁹Si MAS-NMR, and ²⁷Al MAS-NMR results revealed that both Si and Al adopt tetrahedral coordination and participate in the formation of the network structure. In situ XRD measurements for the CMAS glass demonstrate the thermal stability of the glass structure up to 850 °C. Further heat treatment up to 900 °C initiates the precipitation of melilite, a solid solution of akermanite/gehlenite crystalline phase. Qualitative XRD data for glass-ceramics (GCs) produced after heat treatment at 850 °C for 500 h revealed the presence of anorthite along with the melilite crystalline phase. Rietveld refinement of XRD data indicated a high fraction of glassy phase (∼67%) after the formation of crystalline phases. The ²⁹Si MAS-NMR spectra for the CMAS-GC suggest the presence of structural units in the remaining glassy phase with a polymerization degree higher than dimer units, whereas the ²⁷Al MAS-NMR spectra revealed that most Al³⁺ cations exhibit a 4-fold coordination. In situ Raman spectroscopy data indicate that the formation of anorthite crystalline phase initiated after 240 h of heat treatment at 850 °C owing to the interaction between the gehlenite crystals and the remaining glassy phase.

Modeling the Onset of Phase Separation in CaO-SiO2-CaCl2 Chlorine-Containing Silicate Glasses

The addition of chlorine into a bioactive glass composition is expected to reduce its abrasiveness and increase its bioactivity, which is important for dental applications such as toothpastes. There is a lack of information and understanding regarding the structural role of chlorine in chlorine-containing bioactive silicate glasses. This has prompted classical core-shell model molecular dynamics simulations of (50 - x/2)CaO-(50 - x/2)SiO₂-xCaCl₂ glasses to be performed, where x ranges from x = 0.0 to 43.1 mol % CaCl₂. These ternary glasses are advantageous for a fundamental study because they do not have additional network formers (e.g., phosphorus pentoxide) or modifiers (e.g., sodium) typically found in bioactive glass compositions. The (50 - x/2)CaO-(50 - x/2)SiO₂-xCaCl₂ glasses were seen to become phase-separated around the x = 16.1 mol % CaCl₂ composition, and chlorine predominantly coordinated with calcium. These findings provide a solid foundation for further computational modeling work on more complex chlorine-containing bioactive glass compositions.

Experimental and Theoretical Investigation of the Structural Role of Titanium Oxide in CaO-P2O5-TiO2 Invert Glass

Understanding the structural role of TiO₂ in calcium phosphate invert glasses is key for developing a new glass design for biomedical applications. Experimental and computational analysis methods were used to investigate the impact of TiO₂ substitution in these glasses. Spectroscopic analyses indicated that titanium oxide exists as both TiO₄ and TiO₆ units, leading to the formation of Ti-O-P bonds, in spite of depolymerization of the phosphate chains. Classical molecular dynamics showed that the presence of TiO₂ influences the phosphate units and CaO polyhedral structures. The formation of the Ti-O-P bonds caused an increase in the network connectivity of the invert glasses, leading to the improvement of the glass forming ability and wettability. The addition of TiO₂ to calcium phosphate invert glasses led to the introduction of bioactivity.

Influence of Calcium on the Initial Stages of the Sol-Gel Synthesis of Bioactive Glasses

Understanding how calcium interacts with silica sources and influences their polycondensation in aqueous solutions is of central importance for the development of more effective biomaterials by sol-gel approaches. For this purpose, the atomic-scale evolutions of a calcium-containing precursor solution corresponding to a typical sol-gel bioactive glass and of a corresponding Ca-free solution were compared using reactive molecular dynamics simulations. The simulations highlight a significantly faster rate of condensation when calcium is present in the initial solution, resulting in the formation of large and ramified silica clusters within 5 ns, which are absent in the Ca-free system. This different behavior has been analyzed and interpreted in terms of the Ca-induced nanosegregation in calcium-rich and silica-rich regions, which promotes the condensation reactions within the latter. By identifying a possible mechanism behind the limited incorporation of calcium in the silica nanoclusters formed in the early stages of the sol-gel process, these results could guide further studies aimed at identifying favorable experimental conditions to enhance initial calcium incorporation and thus produce sol-gel biomaterials with improved properties.

Enhanced Stability of Calcium Sulfate Scaffolds with 45S5 Bioglass for Bone Repair

Calcium sulfate (CaSO₄), as a promising tissue repair material, has been applied widely due to its outstanding bioabsorbability and osteoconduction. However, fast disintegration, insufficient mechanical strength and poor bioactivity have limited its further application. In the study, CaSO₄ scaffolds fabricated by using selective laser sintering were improved by adding 45S5 bioglass. The 45S5 bioglass enhanced stability significantly due to the bond effect of glassy phase between the CaSO₄ grains. After immersing for four days in simulated body fluid (SBF), the specimens with 45S5 bioglass could still retain its original shape compared as opposed to specimens without 45S5 bioglass who experienced disintegration. Meanwhile, its compressive strength and fracture toughness increased by 80% and 37%, respectively. Furthermore, the apatite layer was formed on the CaSO₄ scaffolds with 45S5 bioglass in SBF, indicating good bioactivity of the scaffolds. In addition, the scaffolds showed good ability to support the osteoblast-like cell adhesion and proliferation.

Na/Ca Intermixing around Silicate and Phosphate Groups in Bioactive Phosphosilicate Glasses Revealed by Heteronuclear Solid-State NMR and Molecular Dynamics Simulations

We characterize the intermixing of network-modifying Na(+)/Ca(2+) ions around the silicate (QSi(n)) and phosphate (QP(n)) tetrahedra in a series of 16 Na2O–CaO–SiO2–P2O5 glasses, whose P content and silicate network connectivity were varied independently. The set includes both bioactive and bioinactive compositions and also encompasses two soda-lime-silicate members devoid of P, as well as two CaO–SiO2 glasses and one Na2O–SiO2–P2O5 glass. The various Si/P↔Na/Ca contacts were probed by molecular dynamics (MD) simulations together with heteronuclear magic-angle-spinning (MAS) nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) experimentation utilizing (23)Na{(31)P} and (23)Na{(29)Si} REDOR, as well as (31)P{ (23)Na} and (29)Si{(23)Na} REAPDOR. We introduce an approach for quantifying the extent of Na(+)/Ca(2+) ordering around a given QP(n) or QSi(n) group, encoded by the preference factor 0⩽ PM ⩽ 1 conveying the relative weights of a random cation intermixing (PM = 0) and complete preference/ordering (PM = 1) for one of the species M, which represents either Na(+) or Ca(2+). The MD-derived preference factors reveal phosphate and silicate species surrounded by Na(+)/Ca(2+) ions intermixed nearly randomly (PM ≲ 0.15), except for the QSi(4) and QSi(1) groups, which manifest more significant cation ordering with preference for Na+ and Ca2+, respectively. The overall weak preferences are essentially independent of the Si and P contents of the glass, whereas PM primarily correlates with the total amount of network modifiers: as the latter is increased, the Na/Ca distribution around the {QP(0), QSi(1), QSi(2)} groups with preference for Ca2(+ )tend to randomize (i.e., PCa decreases), while the PNa-values grow slightly for the {QP(1), QSi(3), QSi(4)} species already preferring coordination of Na. The set of experimental preference factors {PCa} for the orthophosphate (QP(0)) groups extracted from (31)P{(23)Na} REAPDOR NMR-derived M2(P–Na) dipolar second moments agrees well with the MD-generated counterparts. Our results on the Na/Ca intermixing in soda-lime-silicate glasses are discussed in relation to previous reports, highlighting the dependence of the conclusion on the approach to data evaluation.

Bioactive glasses—structure and properties

Bioactive glasses were the first synthetic materials to show bonding to bone, and they are successfully used for bone regeneration. They can degrade in the body at a rate matching that of bone formation, and through a combination of apatite crystallization on their surface and ion release they stimulate bone cell proliferation, which results in the formation of new bone. Despite their excellent properties and although they have been in clinical use for nearly thirty years, their current range of clinical applications is still small. Latest research focuses on developing new compositions to address clinical needs, including glasses for treating osteoporosis, with antibacterial properties, or for the sintering of scaffolds with improved mechanical stability. This Review discusses how the glass structure controls the properties, and shows how a structure-based design may pave the way towards new bioactive glass implants for bone regeneration.

Atomic-scale models of early-stage alkali depletion and SiO2-rich gel formation in bioactive glasses

Molecular dynamics simulations of Na⁺/H⁺-exchanged 45S5 Bioglass® reveal the co-existence of bonded and non-bonded hydroxyls, suggesting a direct mechanism for forming a silica-rich gel structure upon the initial ion exchange.

Cooling rate and size effects on the medium-range structure of multicomponent oxide glasses simulated by molecular dynamics

A set of molecular dynamics simulations were performed to investigate the effect of cooling rate and system size on the medium-range structure of melt-derived multicomponent silicate glasses, represented by the quaternary 45S5 Bioglass composition. Given the significant impact of the glass degradation on applications of these materials in biomedicine and nuclear waste disposal, bulk structural features which directly affect the glass dissolution process are of particular interest. Connectivity of the silicate matrix, ion clustering and nanosegregation, distribution of ring and chain structural patterns represent critical features in this context, which can be directly extracted from the models. A key issue is represented by the effect of the computational approach on the corresponding glass models, especially in light of recent indications questioning the suitability of conventional MD approaches (that is, involving melt-and-quench of systems containing ~10(3) atoms at cooling rates of 5-10 K/ps) when applied to model these glasses. The analysis presented here compares MD models obtained with conventional and nonconventional cooling rates and system sizes, highlighting the trend and range of convergence of specific structural features in the medium range. The present results show that time-consuming computational approaches involving much lower cooling rates and/or significantly larger system sizes are in most cases not necessary in order to obtain a reliable description of the medium-range structure of multicomponent glasses. We identify the convergence range for specific properties and use them to discuss models of several glass compositions for which a possible influence of cooling-rate or size effects had been previously hypothesized. The trends highlighted here represent an important reference to obtain reliable models of multicomponent glasses and extract converged medium-range structural features which affect the glass degradation and thus their application in different fields. In addition, as a first application of the present findings, the fully converged structure of the 45S5 glass was further analyzed to shed new light on several dissolution-related features whose interpretation has been rather controversial in the past.

Toward a rational design of bioactive glasses with optimal structural features: composition-structure correlations unveiled by solid-state NMR and MD simulations

The physiological responses of silicate-based bioactive glasses (BGs) are known to depend critically on both the P content (n_P) of the glass and its silicate network connectivity (N̅_BO^Si). However, while the bioactivity generally displays a nonmonotonic dependence on n_P itself, recent work suggest that it is merely the net orthophosphate content that directly links to the bioactivity. We exploit molecular dynamics (MD) simulations combined with ³¹P and ²⁹Si solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to explore the quantitative relationships between N̅_BO^Si, n_P, and the silicate and phosphate speciations in a series of Na₂O–CaO–SiO₂–P₂O₅ glasses spanning 2.1 ≤ N̅_BO^Si ≤ 2.9 and variable P₂O₅ contents up to 6.0 mol %. The fractional population of the orthophosphate groups remains independent of n_P at a fixed N̅_BO^Si-value, but is reduced slightly as N̅_BO^Si increases. Nevertheless, P remains predominantly as readily released orthophosphate ions, whose content may be altered essentially independently of the network connectivity, thereby offering a route to optimize the glass bioactivity. We discuss the observed composition-structure links in relation to known composition-bioactivity correlations, and define how Na₂O–CaO–SiO₂–P₂O₅ compositions exhibiting an optimal bioactivity can be designed by simultaneously altering three key parameters: the silicate network connectivity, the (ortho)phosphate content, and the n_Na/n_Ca molar ratio.

On the structure of Ce-containing silicophosphate glasses: a core–shell molecular dynamics investigation

New Ce³⁺–O and Ce⁴⁺–O parameters for a force-field based on the core–shell model were developed and applied to get insights into the structure of five silicophosphate glasses with increasing Ce₂O₃ and P₂O₅ content.

Current challenges in atomistic simulations of glasses for biomedical applications

Atomic-scale simulations of bioglasses are being used to tackle several challenging aspects, such as new structural markers of bioactivity, ion migration and nanosized samples.