Familial Alzheimer A2 V Mutation Reduces the Intrinsic Disorder and Completely Changes the Free Energy Landscape of the Aβ1–28 Monomer

The AβA2V paradigm: From molecular insights to therapeutic strategies in Alzheimer's disease and primary tauopathies

Alzheimer's disease, the leading cause of dementia globally, represents an unresolved clinical challenge due to its complex pathogenesis and the absence of effective treatments. Considering the multifactorial etiology of the disease, mainly characterized by the accumulation of amyloid β plaques and neurofibrillary tangles of tau protein, we discuss the A673V mutation in the gene coding for the amyloid precursor protein, which is associated with the familial form of Alzheimer's disease in a homozygous state. The mutation offers new insights into the molecular mechanisms of the disease, particularly regarding the contrasting roles of the A2V and A2T mutations in amyloid β peptide aggregation and toxicity. This review aims to describe relevant studies on A2V-mutated variants of the amyloid β peptide, revealing a protective effect against amyloid-β and tau pathology. Notably, special attention is given to the development of the peptide Aβ1-6A2V(D), which shows significant neuroprotective activity through inhibition of the assembly of amyloid β into amyloid fibrils. The therapeutic potential of this peptide emerges from its ability to reduce amyloid β-induced toxicity, with promising results from studies in human neuroblastoma cells and transgenic animal models.

Survey of the Aβ-peptide structural diversity: molecular dynamics approaches

The review deals with the application of Molecular Dynamics (MD) to the structure modeling of beta-amyloids (Aβ), currently classified as intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs). In this review, we strive to relate the main advances in this area but specifically focus on the approaches and methodology. All relevant papers on the Aβ modeling are cited in the Tables in Supplementary Data, including a concise description of the applied approaches, sorted according to the types of the studied systems: modeling of the monomeric Aβ and Aβ aggregates. Similar sections focused according to the type of modeled object are present in the review. In the final part of the review, novel methods of general IDP modeling not confined to Aβ are described.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12551-024-01253-y.

Influence of ALS-linked M337V mutation on the conformational ensembles of TDP-43321-340 peptide monomer and dimer

The transactive response (TAR) DNA/RNA-binding protein 43 (TDP-43) can self-assemble into both functional stress granules via liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) and pathogenic amyloid fibrillary aggregates that are closely linked to amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Previous experimental studies reported that the low complexity domain (LCD) of TDP-43 plays an essential role in the LLPS and aggregation of the full-length protein, and it alone can also undergo LLPS to form liquid droplets mainly via intermolecular interactions in the 321-340 region. And the ALS-associated M337V mutation impairs LCD's LLPS and facilitates liquid-solid phase transition. However, the underlying atomistic mechanism is not well understood. Herein, as a first step to understand the M337V-caused LLPS disruption of TDP-43 LCD mediated by the 321-340 region and the fibrillization enhancement, we investigated the conformational properties of monomer/dimer of TDP-43321-340 peptide and its M337V mutant by performing extensive all-atom explicit-solvent replica exchange molecular dynamic simulations. Our simulations demonstrate that M337V mutation alters the residue regions with high helix/β-structure propensities and thus affects the conformational ensembles of both monomer and dimer. M337V mutation inhibits helix formation in the N-terminal Ala-rich region and the C-terminal mutation site region, while facilitating their long β-sheet formation, albeit with a minor impact on the average probability of both helix structure and β-structure. Further analysis of dimer system shows that M337V mutation disrupts inter-molecular helix-helix interactions and W334-W334 π-π stacking interactions which were reported to be important for the LLPS of TDP-43 LCD, whereas enhances the overall peptide residue-residue interactions and weakens peptide-water interactions, which is conducive to peptide fibrillization. This study provides mechanistic insights into the M337V-mutation-induced impairment of phase separation and facilitation of fibril formation of TDP-43 LCD.

An electrostatic cluster guides Aβ40 fibril formation in sporadic and Dutch-type cerebral amyloid angiopathy

Cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA) is associated with the accumulation of fibrillar Aβ peptides upon and within the cerebral vasculature, which leads to loss of vascular integrity and contributes to disease progression in Alzheimer's disease (AD). We investigate the structure of human-derived Aβ40 fibrils obtained from patients diagnosed with sporadic or familial Dutch-type (E22Q) CAA. Using cryo-EM, two primary structures are identified containing elements that have not been observed in in vitro Aβ40 fibril structures. One population has an ordered N-terminal fold comprised of two β-strands stabilized by electrostatic interactions involving D1, E22, D23 and K28. This charged cluster is disrupted in the second population, which exhibits a disordered N-terminus and is favored in fibrils derived from the familial Dutch-type CAA patient. These results illustrate differences between human-derived CAA and AD fibrils, and how familial CAA mutations can guide fibril formation.

A turn for the worse: Aβ β-hairpins in Alzheimer's disease

Amyloid-β (Aβ) oligomers are a cause of neurodegeneration in Alzheimer's disease (AD). These soluble aggregates of the Aβ peptide have proven difficult to study due to their inherent metastability and heterogeneity. Strategies to isolate and stabilize homogenous Aβ oligomer populations have emerged such as mutations, covalent cross-linking, and protein fusions. These strategies along with molecular dynamics simulations have provided a variety of proposed structures of Aβ oligomers, many of which consist of molecules of Aβ in β-hairpin conformations. β-Hairpins are intramolecular antiparallel β-sheets composed of two β-strands connected by a loop or turn. Three decades of research suggests that Aβ peptides form several different β-hairpin conformations, some of which are building blocks of toxic Aβ oligomers. The insights from these studies are currently being used to design anti-Aβ antibodies and vaccines to treat AD. Research suggests that antibody therapies designed to target oligomeric Aβ may be more successful at treating AD than antibodies designed to target linear epitopes of Aβ or fibrillar Aβ. Aβ β-hairpins are good epitopes to use in antibody development to selectively target oligomeric Aβ. This review summarizes the research on β-hairpins in Aβ peptides and discusses the relevance of this conformation in AD pathogenesis and drug development.

Insights into the Mixture of Aβ24 and Aβ42 Peptides from Atomistic Simulations

Amyloid-β (Aβ) oligomers play a central role in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Plaques of AD patients consist of Aβ40 and Aβ42 peptides and truncated Aβ peptides. The Aβ24 peptide, identified in human AD brains, was found to impair Aβ42 clearance through the brain-blood barrier. The Aβ24 peptide was also shown to reduce Aβ42 aggregation kinetics in pure buffer, but the underlying mechanism is unknown at atomistic level. In this study, we explored the conformational ensemble of the equimolar mixture of Aβ24 and Aβ42 by replica exchange molecular dynamics simulations and compared it to our previous results on the pure Aβ42 dimer. Our simulations demonstrate that the truncation at residue 24 changes the secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures of the dimer, offering an explanation of the slower aggregation kinetics of the mixture.

Characterization of the Conformations of Amyloid Beta 42 in Solution That May Mediate Its Initial Hydrophobic Aggregation

Intrinsically disordered peptides, such as amyloid β42 (Aβ42), lack a well-defined structure in solution. Aβ42 can undergo abnormal aggregation and amyloidogenesis in the brain, forming fibrillar plaques, a hallmark of Alzheimer's disease. The insoluble fibrillar forms of Aβ42 exhibit well-defined, cross β-sheet structures at the molecular level and are less toxic than the soluble, intermediate disordered oligomeric forms. However, the mechanism of initial interaction of monomers and subsequent oligomerization is not well understood. The structural disorder of Aβ42 adds to the challenges of determining the structural properties of its monomers, making it difficult to understand the underlying molecular mechanism of pathogenic aggregation. Certain regions of Aβ42 are known to exhibit helical propensity in different physiological conditions. NMR spectroscopy has shown that the Aβ42 monomer at lower pH can adopt an α-helical conformation and as the pH is increased, the peptide switches to β-sheet conformation and aggregation occurs. CD spectroscopy studies of aggregation have shown the presence of an initial spike in the amount of α-helical content at the start of aggregation. Such an increase in α-helical content suggests a mechanism wherein the peptide can expose critical non-polar residues for interaction, leading to hydrophobic aggregation with other interacting peptides. We have used molecular dynamics simulations to characterize in detail the conformational landscape of monomeric Aβ42 in solution to identify molecular properties that may mediate the early stages of oligomerization. We hypothesized that conformations with α-helical structure have a higher probability of initiating aggregation because they increase the hydrophobicity of the peptide. Although random coil conformations were found to be the most dominant, as expected, α-helical conformations are thermodynamically accessible, more so than β-sheet conformations. Importantly, for the first time α-helical conformations are observed to increase the exposure of aromatic and hydrophobic residues to the aqueous solvent, favoring their hydrophobically driven interaction with other monomers to initiate aggregation. These findings constitute a first step toward characterizing the mechanism of formation of disordered, low-order oligomers of Aβ42.

Impact of A2T and D23N mutations on C99 homodimer conformations

The proteolytic cleavage of C99 by γ-secretase is the last step in the production of amyloid-β (Aβ) peptides. Previous studies have shown that membrane lipid composition, cholesterol concentration, and mutation in the transmembrane helix modified the structures and fluctuations of C99. In this study, we performed atomistic molecular dynamics simulations of the homodimer of the 55-residue congener of the C-terminal domain of the amyloid protein precursor, C99(1-55), in a POPC-cholesterol lipid bilayer, and we compared the conformational ensemble of WT sequence to those of the A2T and D23N variants. These mutations are particularly interesting as the protective Alzheimer's disease (AD) A2T mutation is known to decrease Aβ production, whereas the early onset AD D23N mutation does not affect Aβ production. We found noticeable differences in the structural ensembles of the three sequences. In particular, A2T varies from both WT and D23N by having long-range effects on the population of the extracellular justamembrane helix, the interface between the G29xxx-G33xxx-G37 motifs and the fluctuations of the transmembrane helical topologies.

Molecular Dynamics Simulations of the Tau Amyloid Fibril Core Dimer at the Surface of a Lipid Bilayer Model: I. In Alzheimer's Disease

A tau R3-R4 domain spanning residues 306-378 was shown to form an amyloid fibril core of a full-length tau in the brain of patients with Alzheimer's disease. Recently, we studied the dynamics of a tau R3-R4 monomer at the surface of a lipid bilayer model and revealed deep insertion of the amino acids spanning the PHF6 motif (residues 306-311) and its flanking residues. Here, we explore the membrane-associated conformational ensemble of a tau R3-R4 dimer by means of atomistic molecular dynamics. Similar to the monomer simulation, the R3-R4 dimer has the propensity to form β-hairpin-like conformation. Unlike the monomer, the dimer shows insertion of the C-terminal R4 region and transient adsorption of the PHF6 motif. Taken together, these results reveal the multiplicity of adsorption and insertion modes of tau into membranes depending on its oligomer size.

Molecular Dynamics Simulations of the Tau R3-R4 Domain Monomer in the Bulk Solution and at the Surface of a Lipid Bilayer Model

The aggregation of the tau protein plays a significant role in Alzheimer's disease, and the tau R3-R4 domain spanning residues 306-378 was shown to form the amyloid fibril core of a full-length tau. The conformations of the tau R3-R4 monomer in the bulk solution and at the surface of membranes are unknown. In this study, we address these questions by means of atomistic molecular dynamics. The simulations in the bulk solution show a very heterogeneous ensemble of conformations with low β and helical contents. The tau R3-R4 monomer has the propensity to form transient β-hairpins within the R3 repeat and between the R3 and R4 repeats and parallel β-sheets spanning the R3 and R4 repeats. The simulations also show that the surface of the membrane does not induce β-sheet insertion and leads to an ensemble of structures very different from those in the bulk solution. They also reveal the dynamical properties of the membrane-bound state of the tau R3-R4 monomer, enabling insertion of the residues 306-318 and 376-378.

Effect of Cholesterol Molecules on Aβ1-42 Wild-Type and Mutants Trimers

Alzheimer’s disease displays aggregates of the amyloid-beta (Aβ) peptide in the brain, and there is increasing evidence that cholesterol may contribute to the pathogenesis of the disease. Though many experimental and theoretical studies have focused on the interactions of Aβ oligomers with membrane models containing cholesterol, an understanding of the effect of free cholesterol on small Aβ42 oligomers is not fully established. To address this question, we report on replica exchange with a solute tempering simulation of an Aβ42 trimer with cholesterol and compare it with a previous replica exchange molecular dynamics simulation. We show that the binding hot spots of cholesterol are rather complex, involving hydrophobic residues L17–F20 and L30–M35 with a non-negligible contribution of loop residues D22–K28 and N-terminus residues. We also examine the effects of cholesterol on the trimers of the disease-causing A21G and disease-protective A2T mutations by molecular dynamics simulations. We show that these two mutations moderately impact cholesterol-binding modes. In our REST2 simulations, we find that cholesterol is rarely inserted into aggregates but rather attached as dimers and trimers at the surface of Aβ42 oligomers. We propose that cholesterol acts as a glue to speed up the formation of larger aggregates; this provides a mechanistic link between cholesterol and Alzheimer’s disease.

Computer Simulations Aimed at Exploring Protein Aggregation and Dissociation

Protein aggregation can lead to well-defined structures that are functional, but is also the cause of the death of neuron cells in many neurodegenerative diseases. The complexity of the molecular events involved in the aggregation kinetics of amyloid proteins and the transient and heterogeneous characters of all oligomers prevent high-resolution structural experiments. As a result, computer simulations have been used to determine the atomic structures of amyloid proteins at different association stages as well as to understand fibril dissociation. In this chapter, we first review the current computer simulation methods used for aggregation with some atomistic and coarse-grained results aimed at better characterizing the early formed oligomers and amyloid fibril formation. Then we present the applications of non-equilibrium molecular dynamics simulations to comprehend the dissociation of protein assemblies.

Dynamics of Amyloid Formation from Simplified Representation to Atomistic Simulations

Amyloid fibril formation is an intrinsic property of short peptides, non-disease proteins, and proteins associated with neurodegenerative diseases. Aggregates of the Aβ and tau proteins, the α-synuclein protein, and the prion protein are observed in the brain of Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and prion disease patients, respectively. Due to the transient short-range and long-range interactions of all species and their high aggregation propensities, the conformational ensemble of these devastating proteins, the exception being for the monomeric prion protein, remains elusive by standard structural biology methods in bulk solution and in lipid membranes. To overcome these limitations, an increasing number of simulations using different sampling methods and protein models have been performed. In this chapter, we first review our main contributions to the field of amyloid protein simulations aimed at understanding the early aggregation steps of short linear amyloid peptides, the conformational ensemble of the Aβ40/42 dimers in bulk solution, and the stability of Aβ aggregates in lipid membrane models. Then we focus on our studies on the interactions of amyloid peptides/inhibitors to prevent aggregation, and long amyloid sequences, including new results on a monomeric tau construct.

Structures of the intrinsically disordered Aβ, tau and α-synuclein proteins in aqueous solution from computer simulations

Intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs) play many biological roles in the human proteome ranging from vesicular transport, signal transduction to neurodegenerative diseases. The Aβ and tau proteins, and the α-synuclein protein, key players in Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases, respectively are fully disordered at the monomer level. The structural heterogeneity of the monomeric and oligomeric states and the high self-assembly propensity of these three IDPs have precluded experimental structural determination. Simulations have been used to determine the atomic structures of these IDPs. In this article, we review recent computer models to capture the equilibrium ensemble of Aβ, tau and α-synuclein proteins at different association steps in aqueous solution and present new results of the PEP-FOLD framework on α-synuclein monomer.

Tau R3-R4 Domain Dimer of the Wild Type and Phosphorylated Ser356 Sequences. I. In Solution by Atomistic Simulations

In Alzheimer's disease, neurofibrillary lesions correlate with cognitive deficits and consist of inclusions of tau protein with cross-β structure. A stable dimeric form of soluble tau has been evidenced in the cells, but its high-resolution structure is missing in solution. We know, however, that cryo-electron microscopy (c-EM) of full-length tau in the brain of an individual with AD displays a core of eight β-sheets with a C-shaped architecture spanning the R3-R4 repeat domain, while the rest of the protein is very flexible. To address the conformational ensemble of the dimer, we performed atomistic replica exchange molecular dynamics simulations on the tau R3-R4 domain starting from the c-EM configuration. We find that the wild type tau R3-R4 dimer explores elongated, U-shaped, V-shaped, and globular forms rather than the C-shape. Phosphorylation of Ser356, pSer356, is known to block the interaction between the tau protein and the amyloid-β42 peptide. Standard molecular dynamics simulations of this phosphorylated sequence for a total of 5 μs compared to its wild type counterpart show a modulation of the population of β-helices and accessible topologies and a decrease of intermediates near the fibril-like conformers.

Stability of Aβ11-40 Trimers with Parallel and Antiparallel β-Sheet Organizations in a Membrane-Mimicking Environment by Replica Exchange Molecular Dynamics Simulation

The aggregation of the amyloid (Aβ) peptide of 39-43 amino acids into plaques is observed in the brain of Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients, but the mechanisms underlying the neurotoxicity of Aβ oligomers are still elusive. One suggested initial mechanism is related to the implications of amyloid membrane interactions, but characterization of these assemblies is challenging by experimental means. In this study, we have explored the stability of a trimer of Aβ11-40 in parallel and antiparallel β-sheet structures for the wild-type sequence and its F20W mutant in a dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine membrane using atomistic replica exchange molecular dynamic simulations. We show that both the U-shape organization and the assembly of β-hairpins are maintained in the membrane and are resistant to the mutation F20W. In contrast the models are destabilized by the F19P mutation. Overall, our results indicate that these two assemblies represent minimal seeds or nuclei for the formation of either amyloid fibrils, a variety of β-barrel pores, or various aggregates for many Aβ sequences in a membrane-mimicking environment.

Aggregation of disease-related peptides

Protein misfolding and aggregation of amyloid proteins is the fundamental cause of more than 20 diseases. Molecular mechanisms of the self-assembly and the formation of the toxic aggregates are still elusive. Computer simulations have been intensively used to study the aggregation of amyloid peptides of various amino acid lengths related to neurodegenerative diseases. We review atomistic and coarse-grained simulations of short amyloid peptides aimed at determining their transient oligomeric structures and the early and late aggregation steps.

Intrinsic Origin of Amyloid Aggregation: Collective Effects of the Mutation and Tautomerism of Histidine

Mutation is considered an important factor in the accumulation of amyloid-β (Aβ), which is a hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD). A2V Aβ40 shows a higher aggregation tendency; however, the existing knowledge is not sufficient to explain the mechanism. We performed replica-exchange molecular dynamics simulations (REMD) to investigate the structural properties of A2V Aβ40 monomers and consider the tautomerism of histidine. The collective effects of the mutation and tautomerism leads A2V Aβ40 to much higher β-sheet and lower α-helix contents than WT Aβ40, which may explain the enhanced aggregation kinetics of A2V Aβ40 with respect to WT Aβ40. The current research provides new insights on understanding the pathology of AD.

Amyloid-β(29-42) Dimeric Conformations in Membranes Rich in Omega-3 and Omega-6 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids

The omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids are two important components of cell membranes in human brains. When incorporated into phospholipids, omega-3 slows the progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD), whereas omega-6 is linked to increased risk of AD. Little is known on the amyloid-β (Aβ) conformations in membranes rich in omega-3 and omega-6 phospholipids. Herein, the structural properties of the Aβ_29-42 dimer embedded in both fatty acid membranes were comparatively studied to a 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl- sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (POPC) bilayer using all-atom molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. Starting from α-helix, both omega-6 and omega-3 membranes promote new orientations and conformations of the dimer, in agreement with the observed dependence of Aβ production upon addition of these two fatty acids. This conformational result is corroborated by atomistic MD simulations of the dimer of the 99 amino acid C-terminal fragment of amyloid precursor protein spanning the residues 15-55. Starting from β-sheet, omega-6 membrane promotes helical and disordered structures of Aβ_29-42 dimer, whereas omega-3 membrane preserves the β-sheet structures differing however from those observed in POPC. Remarkably, the mixture of the two fatty acids and POPC depicts another conformational ensemble of the Aβ_29-42 dimer. This finding demonstrates that variation in the abundance of the molecular phospholipids, which changes with age, modulates membrane-embedded Aβ oligomerization.

Paradoxical Effect of Trehalose on the Aggregation of α-Synuclein: Expedites Onset of Aggregation yet Reduces Fibril Load

Aggregation of α-synuclein is closely connected to the pathology of Parkinson's disease. The phenomenon involves multiple steps, commenced by partial misfolding and eventually leading to mature amyloid fibril formation. Trehalose, a widely accepted osmolyte, has been shown previously to inhibit aggregation of various globular proteins owing to its ability to prevent the initial unfolding of protein. In this study, we have examined if it behaves in a similar fashion with intrinsically disordered protein α-synuclein and possesses the potential to act as therapeutic agent against Parkinson's disease. It was observed experimentally that samples coincubated with trehalose fibrillate faster compared to the case in its absence. Molecular dynamics simulations suggested that this initial acceleration is manifestation of trehalose's tendency to perturb the conformational transitions between different conformers of monomeric protein. It stabilizes the aggregation prone "extended" conformer of α-synuclein, by binding to its exposed acidic residues of the C terminus. It also favors the β-rich oligomers once formed. Interestingly, the total fibrils formed are still promisingly less since it accelerates the competing pathway toward formation of amorphous aggregates.

Looking at the Disordered Proteins through the Computational Microscope

Intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs) have attracted wide interest over the past decade due to their surprising prevalence in the proteome and versatile roles in cell physiology and pathology. A large selection of IDPs has been identified as potential targets for therapeutic intervention. Characterizing the structure-function relationship of disordered proteins is therefore an essential but daunting task, as these proteins can adapt transient structure, necessitating a new paradigm for connecting structural disorder to function. Molecular simulation has emerged as a natural complement to experiments for atomic-level characterizations and mechanistic investigations of this intriguing class of proteins. The diverse range of length and time scales involved in IDP function requires performing simulations at multiple levels of resolution. In this Outlook, we focus on summarizing available simulation methods, along with a few interesting example applications. We also provide an outlook on how these simulation methods can be further improved in order to provide a more accurate description of IDP structure, binding, and assembly.

Pathways of Amyloid-β Aggregation Depend on Oligomer Shape

One of the main research topics related to Alzheimer's disease is the aggregation of the amyloid-β peptide, which was shown to follow different pathways for the two major alloforms of the peptide, Aβ40 and the more toxic Aβ42. Experimental studies emphasized that oligomers of specific sizes appear in the early aggregation process in different quantities and might be the key toxic agents for each of the two alloforms. We use transition networks derived from all-atom molecular dynamics simulations to show that the oligomers leading to the type of oligomer distributions observed in experiments originate from compact conformations. Extended oligomers, on the other hand, contribute more to the production of larger aggregates thus driving the aggregation process. We further demonstrate that differences in the aggregation pathways of the two Aβ alloforms occur as early as during the dimer stage. The higher solvent-exposure of hydrophobic residues in Aβ42 oligomers contributes to the different aggregation pathways of both alloforms and also to the increased cytotoxicity of Aβ42.

The A2V mutation as a new tool for hindering Aβ aggregation: A neutron and x-ray diffraction study

We have described a novel C-to-T mutation in the APP gene that corresponds to an alanine to valine substitution at position 673 in APP (A673V), or position 2 of the amyloid-β (Aβ) sequence. This mutation is associated with the early onset of AD-type dementia in homozygous individuals, whereas it has a protective effect in the heterozygous state. Correspondingly, we observed differences in the aggregation properties of the wild-type and mutated Aβ peptides and their mixture. We have carried out neutron diffraction (ND) and x-ray diffraction (XRD) experiments on magnetically-oriented fibers of Aβ1-28WT and its variant Aβ1-28A2V. The orientation propensity was higher for Aβ1-28A2V suggesting that it promotes the formation of fibrillar assemblies. The diffraction patterns by Aβ1-28WT and Aβ1-28A2V assemblies differed in shape and position of the equatorial reflections, suggesting that the two peptides adopt distinct lateral packing of the diffracting units. The diffraction patterns from a mixture of the two peptides differed from those of the single components, indicating the presence of structural interference during assembly and orientation. The lowest orientation propensity was observed for a mixture of Aβ1-28WT and a short N-terminal fragment, Aβ1-6A2V, which supports a role of Aβ’s N-terminal domain in amyloid fibril formation.

Physical mechanism for biopolymers to aggregate and maintain in non-equilibrium states

Many human or animal diseases are related to aggregation of proteins. A viable biological organism should maintain in non-equilibrium states. How protein aggregate and why biological organisms can maintain in non-equilibrium states are not well understood. As a first step to understand such complex systems problems, we consider simple model systems containing polymer chains and solvent particles. The strength of the spring to connect two neighboring monomers in a polymer chain is controlled by a parameter s with s → ∞ for rigid-bond. The strengths of bending and torsion angle dependent interactions are controlled by a parameter s A with s A  → -∞ corresponding to no bending and torsion angle dependent interactions. We find that for very small s A , polymer chains tend to aggregate spontaneously and the trend is independent of the strength of spring. For strong springs, the speed distribution of monomers in the parallel (along the direction of the spring to connect two neighboring monomers) and perpendicular directions have different effective temperatures and such systems are in non-equilibrium states.

Lattice model for amyloid peptides: OPEP force field parametrization and applications to the nucleus size of Alzheimer's peptides

Coarse-grained protein lattice models approximate atomistic details and keep the essential interactions. They are, therefore, suitable for capturing generic features of protein folding and amyloid formation at low computational cost. As our aim is to study the critical nucleus sizes of two experimentally well-characterized peptide fragments Aβ16-22 and Aβ37-42 of the full length Aβ1-42 Alzheimer's peptide, it is important that simulations with the lattice model reproduce all-atom simulations. In this study, we present a comprehensive force field parameterization based on the OPEP (Optimized Potential for Efficient protein structure Prediction) force field for an on-lattice protein model, which incorporates explicitly the formation of hydrogen bonds and directions of side-chains. Our bottom-up approach starts with the determination of the best lattice force parameters for the Aβ16-22 dimer by fitting its equilibrium parallel and anti-parallel β-sheet populations to all-atom simulation results. Surprisingly, the calibrated force field is transferable to the trimer of Aβ16-22 and the dimer and trimer of Aβ37-42. Encouraged by this finding, we characterized the free energy landscapes of the two decamers. The dominant structure of the Aβ16-22 decamer matches the microcrystal structure. Pushing the simulations for aggregates between 4-mer and 12-mer suggests a nucleus size for fibril formation of 10 chains. In contrast, the Aβ37-42 decamer is largely disordered with mixed by parallel and antiparallel chains, suggesting that the nucleus size is >10 peptides. Our refined force field coupled to this on-lattice model should provide useful insights into the critical nucleation number associated with neurodegenerative diseases.

Alzheimer's Protective Cross-Interaction between Wild-Type and A2T Variants Alters Aβ42 Dimer Structure

Whole genome sequencing has recently revealed the protective effect of a single A2T mutation in heterozygous carriers against Alzheimer's disease (AD) and age-related cognitive decline. The impact of the protective cross-interaction between the wild-type (WT) and A2T variants on the dimer structure is therefore of high interest, as the Aβ dimers are the smallest known neurotoxic species. Toward this goal, extensive atomistic replica exchange molecular dynamics simulations of the solvated WT homo- and A2T hetero- Aβ_1-42 dimers have been performed, resulting into a total of 51 μs of sampling for each system. Weakening of a set of transient, intrachain contacts formed between the central and C-terminal hydrophobic residues is observed in the heterodimeric system. The majority of the heterodimers with reduced interaction between central and C-terminal regions lack any significant secondary structure and display a weak interchain interface. Interestingly, the A2T N-terminus, particularly residue F4, is frequently engaged in tertiary and quaternary interactions with central and C-terminal hydrophobic residues in those distinct structures, leading to hydrophobic burial. This atypical involvement of the N-terminus within A2T heterodimer revealed in our simulations implies possible interference on Aβ₄₂ aggregation and toxic oligomer formation, which is consistent with experiments. In conclusion, the present study provides detailed structural insights onto A2T Aβ₄₂ heterodimer, which might provide molecular insights onto the AD protective effect of the A2T mutation in the heterozygous state.

Comparison of force fields for Alzheimer's A β42: A case study for intrinsically disordered proteins

Intrinsically disordered proteins are essential for biological processes such as cell signalling, but are also associated to devastating diseases including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease or type II diabetes. Because of their lack of a stable three-dimensional structure, molecular dynamics simulations are often used to obtain atomistic details that cannot be observed experimentally. The applicability of molecular dynamics simulations depends on the accuracy of the force field chosen to represent the underlying free energy surface of the system. Here, we use replica exchange molecular dynamics simulations to test five modern force fields, OPLS, AMBER99SB, AMBER99SB*ILDN, AMBER99SBILDN-NMR and CHARMM22*, in their ability to model Aβ42 , an intrinsically disordered peptide associated with Alzheimer's disease, and compare our results to nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) experimental data. We observe that all force fields except AMBER99SBILDN-NMR successfully reproduce local NMR observables, with CHARMM22* being slightly better than the other force fields.

Replica exchange molecular dynamics study of the truncated amyloid beta (11–40) trimer in solution

The structure of the 3Aβ_11–40 oligomer is determined for the first time using T-REMD simulations.

Dimerization Mechanism of Alzheimer Aβ40 Peptides: The High Content of Intrapeptide-Stabilized Conformations in A2V and A2T Heterozygous Dimers Retards Amyloid Fibril Formation

Amyloid beta (Aβ) oligomerization is associated with the origin and progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD). While the A2V mutation enhances aggregation kinetics and toxicity, mixtures of wild-type (WT) and A2V, and also WT and A2T, peptides retard fibril formation and protect against AD. In this study, we simulate the equilibrium ensemble of WT:A2T Aβ₄₀ dimer by means of extensive atomistic replica exchange molecular dynamics and compare our results with previous equivalent simulations of A2V:A2V, WT:WT, and WT:A2V Aβ₄₀ dimers for a total time scale of nearly 0.1 ms. Qualitative comparison of the resulting thermodynamic properties, such as the relative binding free energies, with the reported experimental kinetic and thermodynamic data affords us important insight into the conversion from slow-pathway to fast-pathway dimer conformations. The crucial reaction coordinate or driving force of such transformation turns out to be related to hydrophobic interpeptide interactions. Analysis of the equilibrium ensembles shows that the fast-pathway conformations contain interpeptide out-of-register antiparallel β-sheet structures at short interpeptide distances. In contrast, the slow-pathway conformations are formed by the association of peptides at large interpeptide distances and high intrapeptide compactness, such as conformations containing intramolecular three-stranded β-sheets which sharply distinguish fast (A2V:A2V and WT:WT) and slow (WT:A2T and WT:A2V) amyloid-forming sequences. Also, this analysis leads us to predict that a molecule stabilizing the intramolecular three-stranded β-sheet or inhibiting the formation of an interpeptide β-sheet spanning residues 17-20 and 31-37 would further reduce fibril formation and probably the cytotoxicity of Aβ species.

Impact of the A2V Mutation on the Heterozygous and Homozygous Aβ1-40 Dimer Structures from Atomistic Simulations

The A2V mutation was reported to protect from Alzheimer's disease in its heterozygous form and cause an early Alzheimer's disease type dementia in its homozygous form. Experiments showed that the aggregation rate follows the order A2V > WT (wild-type) > A2V-WT. To understand the impact of this mutation, we carried out replica exchange molecular dynamics simulations of Aβ1-40 WT-A2V and A2V-A2V dimers and compared to the WT dimer. Our atomistic simulations reveal that the mean secondary structure remains constant, but there are substantial differences in the intramolecular and intermolecular conformations upon single and double A2V mutation. Upon single mutation, the intrinsic disorder is reduced, the intermolecular potential energies are reduced, the population of intramolecular three-stranded β-sheets is increased, and the number of all α dimer topologies is decreased. Taken together, these results offer an explanation for the reduced aggregation rate of the Aβ1-40 A2V-WT peptides and the protective effect of A2V in heterozygotes.

The Folding of de Novo Designed Protein DS119 via Molecular Dynamics Simulations

As they are not subjected to natural selection process, de novo designed proteins usually fold in a manner different from natural proteins. Recently, a de novo designed mini-protein DS119, with a βαβ motif and 36 amino acids, has folded unusually slowly in experiments, and transient dimers have been detected in the folding process. Here, by means of all-atom replica exchange molecular dynamics (REMD) simulations, several comparably stable intermediate states were observed on the folding free-energy landscape of DS119. Conventional molecular dynamics (CMD) simulations showed that when two unfolded DS119 proteins bound together, most binding sites of dimeric aggregates were located at the N-terminal segment, especially residues 5-10, which were supposed to form β-sheet with its own C-terminal segment. Furthermore, a large percentage of individual proteins in the dimeric aggregates adopted conformations similar to those in the intermediate states observed in REMD simulations. These results indicate that, during the folding process, DS119 can easily become trapped in intermediate states. Then, with diffusion, a transient dimer would be formed and stabilized with the binding interface located at N-terminals. This means that it could not quickly fold to the native structure. The complicated folding manner of DS119 implies the important influence of natural selection on protein-folding kinetics, and more improvement should be achieved in rational protein design.

Quarterly intrinsic disorder digest (January-February-March, 2014)

This is the 5^th issue of the Digested Disorder series that represents a reader's digest of the scientific literature on intrinsically disordered proteins. We continue to use only 2 criteria for inclusion of a paper to this digest: The publication date (a paper should be published within the covered time frame) and the topic (a paper should be dedicated to any aspect of protein intrinsic disorder). The current digest issue covers papers published during the first quarter of 2014; i.e., during the period of January, February, and March of 2014. Similar to previous issues, the papers are grouped hierarchically by topics they cover, and for each of the included papers a short description is given on its major findings.

Amylin-Aβ oligomers at atomic resolution using molecular dynamics simulations: a link between Type 2 diabetes and Alzheimer's disease

Clinical studies have identified Type 2 diabetes (T2D) as a risk factor of Alzheimer's disease (AD). One of the potential mechanisms that link T2D and AD is the loss of cells associated with degenerative changes. Amylin1-37 aggregates (the pathological species in T2D) were found to be co-localized with those of Aβ1-42 (the pathological species in AD) to form the Amylin1-37-Aβ1-42 plaques, promoting aggregation and thus contributing to the etiology of AD. However, the mechanisms by which Amylin1-37 co-aggregates with Aβ1-42 are still elusive. This work presents the interactions between Amylin1-37 oligomers and Aβ1-42 oligomers at atomic resolution applying extensive molecular dynamics simulations for relatively large ensemble of cross-seeding Amylin1-37-Aβ1-42 oligomers. The main conclusions of this study are first, Aβ1-42 oligomers prefer to interact with Amylin1-37 oligomers to form single layer conformations (in-register interactions) rather than double layer conformations; and second, in some double layer conformations of the cross-seeding Amylin1-37-Aβ1-42 oligomers, the Amylin1-37 oligomers destabilize the Aβ1-42 oligomers and thus inhibit Aβ1-42 aggregation, while in other double layer conformations, the Amylin1-37 oligomers stabilize Aβ1-42 oligomers and thus promote Aβ1-42 aggregation.

Induced Dipole-Dipole Interactions Influence the Unfolding Pathways of Wild-Type and Mutant Amyloid β-Peptides

Amyloid-forming proteins undergo a structural transition from α-helical to disordered conformations and, ultimately, cross-β fibrils. The unfolding and aggregation of the amyloid β-peptide (Aβ) have been implicated in the development and progression of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA). However, the events underlying the initial structural transition leading to the disease state remain unclear. Although most cases are sporadic, several genetic variants exist that alter the electrostatic properties of Aβ and lead to more rapid unfolding and more severe phenotypes. In the present study, the enhanced unfolding is shown to be due to the mutated side chains altering the local peptide-bond dipole moments leading to local destabilization of the α-helix, as determined from polarizable molecular dynamics (MD) simulations of wild-type (WT) Aβ fragments and several common mutations. The local perturbation of the helix then leads to progressive unwinding of the α-helix in a cooperative fashion due to decreases in adjacent (i ± 1) and hydrogen-bonded (i + 4) peptide-bond dipole moments. Side-chain dynamics, subsequent variations in dipole moments, and ultimately the response in the peptide-bond dipole moments are all modulated by solvent dielectric properties based on simulations in water versus ethanol. The polarizable simulation results, along with simulations using the additive CHARMM36 force field, further indicate that cooperativity due to the alignment of peptide bonds leading to enhanced dipole moments is a fundamental force in stabilizing α-helices.

Amyloid β-Protein Assembly: Differential Effects of the Protective A2T Mutation and Recessive A2V Familial Alzheimer's Disease Mutation

Oligomeric states of the amyloid β-protein (Aβ) appear to be causally related to Alzheimer's disease (AD). Recently, two familial mutations in the amyloid precursor protein gene have been described, both resulting in amino acid substitutions at Ala2 (A2) within Aβ. An A2V mutation causes autosomal recessive early onset AD. Interestingly, heterozygotes enjoy some protection against development of the disease. An A2T substitution protects against AD and age-related cognitive decline in non-AD patients. Here, we use ion mobility-mass spectrometry (IM-MS) to examine the effects of these mutations on Aβ assembly. These studies reveal different assembly pathways for early oligomer formation for each peptide. A2T Aβ42 formed dimers, tetramers, and hexamers, but dodecamer formation was inhibited. In contrast, no significant effects on Aβ40 assembly were observed. A2V Aβ42 also formed dimers, tetramers, and hexamers, but it did not form dodecamers. However, A2V Aβ42 formed trimers, unlike A2T or wild-type (wt) Aβ42. In addition, the A2V substitution caused Aβ40 to oligomerize similar to that of wt Aβ42, as evidenced by the formation of dimers, tetramers, hexamers, and dodecamers. In contrast, wt Aβ40 formed only dimers and tetramers. These results provide a basis for understanding how these two mutations lead to, or protect against, AD. They also suggest that the Aβ N-terminus, in addition to the oft discussed central hydrophobic cluster and C-terminus, can play a key role in controlling disease susceptibility.

Alzheimer's protective A2T mutation changes the conformational landscape of the Aβ₁₋₄₂ monomer differently than does the A2V mutation

The aggregation of amyloid-β (Aβ) peptides plays a crucial role in the etiology of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Recently, it has been reported that an A2T mutation in Aβ can protect against AD. Interestingly, a nonpolar A2V mutation also has been found to offer protection against AD in the heterozygous state, although it causes early-onset AD in homozygous carriers. Since the conformational landscape of the Aβ monomer is known to directly contribute to the early-stage aggregation mechanism, it is important to characterize the effects of the A2T and A2V mutations on Aβ₁₋₄₂ monomer structure. Here, we have performed extensive atomistic replica-exchange molecular dynamics simulations of the solvated wild-type (WT), A2V, and A2T Aβ₁₋₄₂ monomers. Our simulations reveal that although all three variants remain as collapsed coils in solution, there exist significant structural differences among them at shorter timescales. A2V exhibits an enhanced double-hairpin population in comparison to the WT, similar to those reported in toxic WT Aβ₁₋₄₂ oligomers. Such double-hairpin formation is caused by hydrophobic clustering between the N-terminus and the central and C-terminal hydrophobic patches. In contrast, the A2T mutation causes the N-terminus to engage in unusual electrostatic interactions with distant residues, such as K16 and E22, resulting in a unique population comprising only the C-terminal hairpin. These findings imply that a single A2X (where X = V or T) mutation in the primarily disordered N-terminus of the Aβ₁₋₄₂ monomer can dramatically alter the β-hairpin population and switch the equilibrium toward alternative structures. The atomistically detailed, comparative view of the structural landscapes of A2V and A2T variant monomers obtained in this study can enhance our understanding of the mechanistic differences in their early-stage aggregation.

Polymorphic cross-seeding amyloid assemblies of amyloid-β and human islet amyloid polypeptide

Epidemiological studies have shown that the development of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is associated with type 2 diabetes (T2D), but it still remains unclear how AD and T2D are connected. Heterologous cross-seeding between the causative peptides of Aβ and hIAPP may represent a molecular link between AD and T2D. Here, we computationally modeled and simulated a series of cross-seeding double-layer assemblies formed by Aβ and hIAPP peptides using all-atom and coarse-gained molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. The cross-seeding Aβ-hIAPP assemblies showed a wide range of polymorphic structures via a combination of four β-sheet-to-β-sheet interfaces and two packing orientations, focusing on a comparison of different matches of β-sheet layers. Two cross-seeding Aβ-hIAPP assemblies with different interfacial β-sheet packings exhibited high structural stability and favorable interfacial interactions in both oligomeric and fibrillar states. Both Aβ-hIAPP assemblies displayed interfacial dehydration to different extents, which in turn promoted Aβ-hIAPP association depending on interfacial polarity and geometry. Furthermore, computational mutagenesis studies revealed that disruption of interfacial salt bridges largely disfavor the β-sheet-to-β-sheet association, highlighting the importance of salt bridges in the formation of cross-seeding assemblies. This work provides atomic-level information on the cross-seeding interactions between Aβ and hIAPP, which may be involved in the interplay between these two disorders.

Structures of the Alzheimer's Wild-Type Aβ1-40 Dimer from Atomistic Simulations

We have studied the dimer of amyloid beta peptide Aβ of 40 residues by means of all-atom replica exchange molecular dynamics. The Aβ-dimers have been found to be the smallest toxic species in Alzheimer's disease, but their inherent flexibilities have precluded structural characterization by experimental methods. Though the 24-μs-scale simulation reveals a mean secondary structure of 18% β-strand and 10% α helix, we find transient configurations with an unstructured N-terminus and multiple β-hairpins spanning residues 17-21 and 30-36, but the antiparallel and perpendicular peptide orientations are preferred over the parallel organization. Short-lived conformational states also consist of all α topologies, and one compact peptide with β-sheet structure stabilized by a rather extended peptide with α-helical content. Overall, this first all-atom study provides insights into the equilibrium structure of the Aβ1-40 dimer in aqueous solution, opening a new avenue for a comprehensive understanding of the impact of pathogenic and protective mutations in early-stage Alzheimer's disease on a molecular level.

Oligomer Formation of Toxic and Functional Amyloid Peptides Studied with Atomistic Simulations

Amyloids are associated with diseases, including Alzheimer's, as well as functional roles such as storage of peptide hormones. It is still unclear what differences exist between aberrant and functional amyloids. However, it is known that soluble oligomers formed during amyloid aggregation are more toxic than the final fibrils. Here, we perform molecular dynamics simulations to study the aggregation of the amyloid-β peptide Aβ25-35, associated with Alzheimer's disease, and two functional amyloid-forming tachykinin peptides: kassinin and neuromedin K. Although the three peptides have similar primary sequences, tachykinin peptides, in contrast to Aβ25-35, form nontoxic amyloids. Our simulations reveal that the charge of the C-terminus is essential to controlling the aggregation process. In particular, when the kassinin C-terminus is not amidated, the aggregation kinetics decreases considerably. In addition, we observe that the monomeric peptides in extended conformations aggregate faster than those in collapsed hairpin-like conformations.

Combined experimental and simulation studies suggest a revised mode of action of the anti-Alzheimer disease drug NQ-Trp

Inhibition of the aggregation of the monomeric peptide β-amyloid (Aβ) into oligomers is a widely studied therapeutic approach in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Many small molecules have been reported to work in this way, including 1,4-naphthoquinon-2-yl-L-tryptophan (NQ-Trp). NQ-Trp has been reported to inhibit aggregation, to rescue cells from Aβ toxicity, and showed complete phenotypic recovery in an in vivo AD model. In this work we investigated its molecular mechanism by using a combined approach of experimental and theoretical studies, and obtained converging results. NQ-Trp is a relatively weak inhibitor and the fluorescence data obtained by employing the fluorophore widely used to monitor aggregation into fibrils can be misinterpreted due to the inner filter effect. Simulations and NMR experiments showed that NQ-Trp has no specific "binding site"-type interaction with mono- and dimeric Aβ, which could explain its low inhibitory efficiency. This suggests that the reported anti-AD activity of NQ-Trp-type molecules in in vivo models has to involve another mechanism. This study has revealed the potential pitfalls in the development of aggregation inhibitors for amyloidogenic peptides, which are of general interest for all the molecules studied in the context of inhibiting the formation of toxic aggregates.

Exploring the Alzheimer amyloid-β peptide conformational ensemble: A review of molecular dynamics approaches

Alzheimer's disease is one of the most common dementia among elderly worldwide. There is no therapeutic drugs until now to treat effectively this disease. One main reason is due to the poorly understood mechanism of Aβ peptide aggregation, which plays a crucial role in the development of Alzheimer's disease. It remains challenging to experimentally or theoretically characterize the secondary and tertiary structures of the Aβ monomer because of its high flexibility and aggregation propensity, and its conformations that lead to the aggregation are not fully identified. In this review, we highlight various structural ensembles of Aβ peptide revealed and characterized by computational approaches in order to find converging structures of Aβ monomer. Understanding how Aβ peptide forms transiently stable structures prior to aggregation will contribute to the design of new therapeutic molecules against the Alzheimer's disease.

Folding Atomistic Proteins in Explicit Solvent Using Simulated Tempering

Following a previous report on a coarse-grained protein model in implicit solvent, we applied simulated tempering (ST) with on-the-fly Helmholtz free energy (weight factors) determination to the folding or aggregation of seven proteins with the CHARMM, OPLS, and AMBER protein, and the SPC and TIP3P water force fields. For efficiency and reliability, we also performed replica exchange molecular dynamics (REMD) simulations on the alanine di- and deca-peptide, and the dimer of the Aβ16-22 Alzheimer's fragment, and used experimental data and previous simulation results on the chignolin, beta3s, Trp-cage, and WW domain peptides of 10-37 amino acids. The sampling with ST is found to be more efficient than with REMD for a much lower CPU cost. Starting from unfolded or extended conformations, the WW domain and the Trp-cage peptide fold to their NMR structures with a backbone RMSD of 2.0 and 1 Å. Remarkably, the ST simulation explores transient non-native topologies for Trp-cage that have been rarely discussed by other simulations. Our ST simulations also show that the CHARMM22* force field has limitations in describing accurately the beta3s peptide. Taken together, these results open the door to the study of the configurations of single proteins, protein aggregates, and any molecular systems at atomic details in explicit solvent using a single normal CPU. They also demonstrate that our ST scheme can be used with any force field ranging from quantum mechanics to coarse-grain and atomistic.

Effects of the Pathogenic Mutation A117V and the Protective Mutation H111S on the Folding and Aggregation of PrP106-126: Insights from Replica Exchange Molecular Dynamics Simulations

The fragment 106-126 of prion protein exhibits similar properties to full-length prion. Experiments have shown that the A117V mutation enhances the aggregation of PrP106-126, while the H111S mutation abolishes the assembly. However, the mechanism of the change in the aggregation behavior of PrP106-126 upon the two mutations is not fully understood. In this study, replica exchange molecular dynamics simulations were performed to investigate the conformational ensemble of the WT PrP106-126 and its two mutants A117V and H111S. The obtained results indicate that the three species are all intrinsically disordered but they have distinct morphological differences. The A117V mutant has a higher propensity to form β-hairpin structures than the WT, while the H111S mutant has a higher population of helical structures. Furthermore, the A117V mutation increases the hydrophobic solvent accessible surface areas of PrP106-126 and the H111S mutation reduces the exposure of hydrophobic residues. It can be concluded that the difference in populations of β-hairpin structures and the change of hydrophobic solvent accessible areas may induce the different aggregation behaviors of the A117V and the H111S mutated PrP106-126. Understanding why the two mutations have contrary effects on the aggregation of PrP106-126 is very meaningful for further elucidation of the mechanism underlying aggregation and design of inhibitor against aggregation process.