Computer Simulation Study of the Structure of LiCl Aqueous Solutions: Test of Non-Standard Mixing Rules in the Ion Interaction

Scaling Solute-Solvent Distances to Improve Solubility and Ion Paring Predictions in Rigid Ion Models

Force fields based on the rigid ion model (RIM) have been developed to accurately predict the various physical and chemical properties of salts and water. However, the combined use of these models often fails to accurately predict the solubility of salts in water. To address this issue, several approaches, such as charge scaling or reparameterization, have been proposed. Nevertheless, these methods require laborious reparameterization of nonbonded force field parameters. In this article, we propose a scaling solute-solvent distance (SSSD) method to improve force fields in predicting salt solubility without changing the solute-solute and solvent-solvent interactions in the original force fields. This method can also tune the ion pairing of salt in water. One main advantage of the SSSD method is that reparameterization of the crystal and water models is not needed. We use two RIMs for the NaCl-water system (JC-SPC/E and SD-SPC/E) and the CHARMM force field for the KCl-water system to demonstrate the improved accuracy in predicting solubility by the SSSD method. Furthermore, we use the RDG-SPC/Fw force field to show that the SSSD method can also be used to tune the ion pairing of CaCO3 in water. Limitations of this method are also discussed.

Impacts of targeting different hydration free energy references on the development of ion potentials

Hydration free energy (HFE) as the most important solvation parameter is often targeted in ion model development, even though the reported values differ by dozens of kcal mol^-1 mainly due to the experimentally undetermined HFE of the proton ΔG°(H⁺). The choice of ΔG°(H⁺) obviously affects the hydration of single ions and the relative HFE between the ions with different (magnitude or sign) charges, and the impacts of targeted HFEs on the ion solvation and ion-ion interactions are largely unrevealed. Here we designed point charge models of K⁺, Mg²⁺, Al³⁺, and Cl^- ions targeting a variety of HFE references and then investigated the HFE influences on the simulations of dilute and concentrated ion solutions and of the salt ion pairs in gas, liquid, and solid phases. Targeting one more property of ion-water oxygen distances (IOD) leaves the ion-water binding distance invariant, while the binding strength increases with the decreasing (more negative) HFE of ions as a result of a decrease in ΔG°(H⁺) for the cation and an increase in ΔG°(H⁺) for the anion. The increase in ΔG°(H⁺) leads to strengthened cation-anion interactions and thus to close ion-ion contacts, low osmotic pressures, and small activity derivatives in concentrated ion solutions as well as too stable ion pairs of the salts in different phases. The ion diffusivity and water exchange rates around the ions are simply not HFE dependent but rather more complex. Targeting both the aqueous IOD and salt crystal properties of KCl was also attempted and the comparison between different models indicates the complexity and challenge in obtaining a balanced performance between different phases using classical force fields. Our results also support that a real ΔG°(H⁺) value of -259.8 kcal mol^-1 recommended by Hünenberger and Reif guides ion models to reproduce ion-water and ion-ion interactions reasonably at relatively low salt concentrations. Simulations of a metalloprotein show that a relatively more positive ΔG°(H⁺) for Mg²⁺ model is better for a reasonable description of the metal binding network.

Where Lennard-Jones Potentials Fail: Iterative Optimization of Ion-Water Pair Potentials Based on Ab Initio Molecular Dynamics Data

The use of the Lennard-Jones (LJ) potential in computer simulations of aqueous electrolyte solutions is widespread. The standard approach is to parametrize LJ potential parameters against thermodynamic solution properties, but problems in representing the local structural and dynamic properties of ion hydration shells remain. The r^-12-term in the LJ potential is responsible for this as it leads to overly repulsive ion-water interactions at short range. As a result, the LJ potential predicts blue-shifted vibrational peaks of the cations' rattling mode and too large negative ion hydration entropies. We demonstrate that cation-water effective pair potentials derived from ab initio MD data have softer short-range repulsions and represent hydration shell properties significantly better. Our findings indicate that replacing the LJ potential with these effective pair potentials offers a promising route to represent thermodynamic solution properties and local interactions of specific ions with nonpolarizable force field models.

Dehydration-Determined Ion Selectivity of Graphene Subnanopores

Graphene membranes with subnanopores are considered to be the next-generation materials for water desalination and ion separation, while their performance is mainly determined by the relative ion selectivity of the pores. However, the origin of this phenomenon has been controversial in the past few years, which strongly limits the development of related applications. Here, using direct Au ion bombardment, we fabricated the desired subnanopores with average diameters of 0.8 ± 0.16 nm in monolayer graphene. The pores showed the ability to sieve K⁺, Na⁺, Li⁺, Cs⁺, Mg²⁺, and Ca²⁺ cations, and the observed K⁺/Mg²⁺ selectivity ratio was over 4. With further molecular dynamics simulations, we demonstrated that the ion selectivity is primarily attributed to the dehydration process of ions that can be quantitatively described by the ion-dependent free-energy barriers. Hopefully, this work is helpful in further enhancing the ion selectivity of graphene nanopores and also presenting a new paradigm for improving the performance of other nanoporous atomically thin membranes, such as MXenes and MoS₂.

Dielectric constant and density of aqueous alkali halide solutions by molecular dynamics: A force field assessment

The concentration dependence of the dielectric constant and the density of 11 aqueous alkali halide solutions (LiCl, NaCl, KCl, RbCl, CsCl, LiI, NaI, KI, CsI, KF, and CsF) is investigated by molecular simulation. Predictions using eight non-polarizable ion force fields combined with the TIP4P/ε water model are compared to experimental data. The influence of the water model and the temperature on the results for the NaCl brine are also addressed. The TIP4P/ε water model improves the accuracy of dielectric constant predictions compared to the SPC/E water model. The solution density is predicted well by most ion models. Almost all ion force fields qualitatively capture the decline of the dielectric constant with the increase of concentration for all solutions and with the increase of temperature for NaCl brine. However, the sampled dielectric constant is mostly in poor quantitative agreement with experimental data. These results are related to the microscopic solution structure, ion pairing, and ultimately the force field parameters. Ion force fields with excessive contact ion pairing and precipitation below the experimental solubility limit generally yield higher dielectric constant values. An adequate reproduction of the experimental solubility limit should therefore be a prerequisite for further investigations of the dielectric constant of aqueous electrolyte solutions by molecular simulation.

On the transferability of ion parameters to the TIP4P/2005 water model using molecular dynamics simulations

Countless molecular dynamics studies have relied on available ion and water force field parameters to model aqueous electrolyte solutions. The TIP4P/2005 model has proven itself to be among the best rigid water force fields, whereas many of the most successful ion parameters were optimized in combination with SPC/E, TIP3P, or TIP4P/Ew water. Many researchers have combined these ions with TIP4P/2005, hoping to leverage the strengths of both parameter sets. To assess if this widely used approach is justified and to provide a guide in selecting ion parameters, we investigated the transferability of various commonly used monovalent and multivalent ion parameters to the TIP4P/2005 water model. The transferability is evaluated in terms of ion hydration free energy, hydration radius, coordination number, and self-diffusion coefficient at infinite dilution. For selected ion parameters, we also investigated density, ion pairing, chemical potential, and mean ionic activity coefficients at finite concentrations. We found that not all ions are equally transferable to TIP4P/2005 without compromising their performance. In particular, ions optimized for TIP3P water were found to be poorly transferable to TIP4P/2005, whereas ions optimized for TIP4P/Ew water provided nearly perfect transferability. The latter ions also showed good overall agreement with experimental values. The one exception is that no combination of ion parameters and water model considered here was found to accurately reproduce experimental self-diffusion coefficients. Additionally, we found that cations optimized for SPC/E and TIP3P water displayed consistent underpredictions in the hydration free energy, whereas anions consistently overpredicted the hydration free energy.

A force field of Li+, Na+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Cl-, and SO4 2- in aqueous solution based on the TIP4P/2005 water model and scaled charges for the ions

In this work, a force field for several ions in water is proposed. In particular, we consider the cations Li⁺, Na⁺, K⁺, Mg²⁺, and Ca²⁺ and the anions Cl^- and SO₄ ^2-. These ions were selected as they appear in the composition of seawater, and they are also found in biological systems. The force field proposed (denoted as Madrid-2019) is nonpolarizable, and both water molecules and sulfate anions are rigid. For water, we use the TIP4P/2005 model. The main idea behind this work is to further explore the possibility of using scaled charges for describing ionic solutions. Monovalent and divalent ions are modeled using charges of 0.85 and 1.7, respectively (in electron units). The model allows a very accurate description of the densities of the solutions up to high concentrations. It also gives good predictions of viscosities up to 3 m concentrations. Calculated structural properties are also in reasonable agreement with the experiment. We have checked that no crystallization occurred in the simulations at concentrations similar to the solubility limit. A test for ternary mixtures shows that the force field provides excellent performance at an affordable computer cost. In summary, the use of scaled charges, which could be regarded as an effective and simple way of accounting for polarization (at least to a certain extend), improves the overall description of ionic systems in water. However, for purely ionic systems, scaled charges will not adequately describe neither the solid nor the melt.

Glass polymorphism and liquid-liquid phase transition in aqueous solutions: experiments and computer simulations

One of the most intriguing anomalies of water is its ability to exist as distinct amorphous ice forms (glass polymorphism or polyamorphism). This resonates well with the possible first-order liquid-liquid phase transition (LLPT) in the supercooled state, where ice is the stable phase. In this Perspective, we review experiments and computer simulations that search for LLPT and polyamorphism in aqueous solutions containing salts and alcohols. Most studies on ionic solutes are devoted to NaCl and LiCl; studies on alcohols have mainly focused on glycerol. Less attention has been paid to protein solutions and hydrophobic solutes, even though they reveal promising avenues. While all solutions show polyamorphism and an LLPT only in dilute, sub-eutectic mixtures, there are differences regarding the nature of the transition. Isocompositional transitions for varying mole fractions are observed in alcohol but not in ionic solutions. This is because water can surround alcohol molecules either in a low- or high-density configuration whereas for ionic solutes, the water ion hydration shell is forced into high-density structures. Consequently, the polyamorphic transition and the LLPT are prevented near the ions, but take place in patches of water within the solutions. We highlight discrepancies and different interpretations within the experimental community as well as the key challenges that need consideration when comparing experiments and simulations. We point out where reinterpretation of past studies helps to draw a unified, consistent picture. In addition to the literature review, we provide original experimental results. A list of eleven open questions that need further consideration is identified.

Phase Diagram of TIP4P/2005 Water at High Pressure

We report a new ice phase that forms spontaneously at the interface between ice VII and liquid water in molecular dynamics simulations of TIP4P/2005 water. The new phase is structurally quite similar to an ice phase originally found to be a precursor in the course of the homogeneous nucleation of ice VII in liquid water. A part of the water molecules in these ice phases can rotate easily because the number of hydrogen bonds in them is less than four, and thus they can be regarded as partial plastic phases. A rough estimate suggests that these phases are thermodynamically more stable than either ice VI or ice VII for 3 GPa < P < 18 GPa at T = 300 K. Although the partial plastic phases would be metastable states at any point in the phase diagram of real water, they might be realized experimentally with the aid of dopants and/or solid surfaces.

Crystal structures of model lithium halides in bulk phase and in clusters

We employ lattice energy calculations and molecular dynamics simulations to compare the stability of wurtzite and rock salt crystal structures of four lithium halides (LiF, LiCl, LiBr, and LiI) modeled using the Tosi-Fumi and Joung-Cheatham potentials, which are models frequently used in simulation studies. Both infinite crystals and finite clusters are considered. For the Tosi-Fumi model, we find that all four salts prefer the wurtzite structure both at 0 K and at finite temperatures, in disagreement with experiments, where rock salt is the stable structure and wurtzite exists as a metastable state. For Joung-Cheatham potentials, rock salt is more stable for LiF and LiCl, but the wurtzite structure is preferred by LiBr and LiI. It is clear that the available lithium halide force fields need improvement to bring them into better accord with the experiment. Finite-size clusters that are more stable as rock salt in the bulk phase tend to solidify as small rock salt crystals. However, small clusters of salts that prefer the wurtzite structure as bulk crystals tend to form structures that have hexagonal motifs, but are not finite-size wurtzite crystals. We show that small wurtzite structures are unstable due to the presence of a dipole and rearrange into more stable, size-dependent structures. We also show that entropic contributions can act in favor of the wurtzite structure at higher temperatures. The possible relevance of our results for simulation studies of crystal nucleation from melts and/or aqueous solutions is discussed.

Consensus on the solubility of NaCl in water from computer simulations using the chemical potential route

The solubility of NaCl in water is evaluated by using three force field models: Joung-Cheatham for NaCl dissolved in two different water models (SPC/E and TIP4P/2005) and Smith Dang NaCl model in SPC/E water. The methodology based on free-energy calculations [E. Sanz and C. Vega, J. Chem. Phys. 126, 014507 (2007)] and [J. L. Aragones et al., J. Chem. Phys. 136, 244508 (2012)] has been used, except, that all calculations for the NaCl in solution were obtained by using molecular dynamics simulations with the GROMACS package instead of homemade MC programs. We have explored new lower molalities and made longer runs to improve the accuracy of the calculations. Exploring the low molality region allowed us to obtain an analytical expression for the chemical potential of the ions in solution as a function of molality valid for a wider range of molalities, including the infinite dilute case. These new results are in better agreement with recent estimations of the solubility obtained with other methodologies. Besides, two empirical simple rules have been obtained to have a rough estimate of the solubility of a certain model, by analyzing the ionic pairs formation as a function of molality and/or by calculating the difference between the NaCl solid chemical potential and the standard chemical potential of the salt in solution.

Force Fields for Carbohydrate-Divalent Cation Interactions

We report molecular dynamics simulations to study intermolecular interactions for carbohydrate-divalent cation complexes. We observed that common force fields from literature with standard Lorentz-Berthelot combining rules are unable to reproduce the experimental stability constants for model carbohydrate monomer (α-d-Allopyranose) and alkali earth metal cation (Mg(2+), Ca(2+), Sr(2+), or Ba(2+)) complexes. A modified combining rule with rescaled effective cross-interaction radius between cations and the hydroxyl oxygens on the carbohydrates was introduced to reproduce the experimental stability constants, which the preferential carbohydrate-cation complexing structures through the ax-eq-ax sequence of O-1, O-2, and O-3 on α-d-Allopyranose were also observed. The effective radius scaling factor obtained from (α-d-Allopyranose)-Ca(2+) complexes was directly transferrable to the similar six-membered ring (α-d-Ribopyranose)-Ca(2+) complexes; however, reparameterization for the scaling factor may be necessary for the five-membered ring (α-d-Ribofuranose)-Ca(2+) complexes.

Exploring Ion-Ion Interactions in Aqueous Solutions by a Combination of Molecular Dynamics and Neutron Scattering

Recent advances in computational and experimental techniques have allowed for accurate description of ion pairing in aqueous solutions. Free energy methods based on ab initio molecular dynamics, as well as on force fields accounting effectively for electronic polarization, can provide quantitative information about the structures and occurrences of individual types of ion pairs. When properly benchmarked against electronic structure calculations for model systems and against structural experiments, in particular neutron scattering, such force field simulations represent a powerful tool for elucidating interactions of salt ions in complex biological aqueous environments.

Investigations of clustering of ions and diffusivity in concentrated aqueous solutions of lithium chloride by molecular dynamic simulations

The diffusion coefficient of Li⁺ ions decreases with increase in LiCl concentration which depends on the size of coordination structure of ions formed in solutions.