Influence of Tetraalkylammonium Cation Chain Length on Gold and Glassy Carbon Electrode Interfaces for Alkali Metal-Oxygen Batteries

The Effect of the Tetraalkylammonium Cation in the Electrochemical CO2 Reduction Reaction on Copper Electrode

Aprotic organic solvents such as acetonitrile offer a potential solution to promote electrochemical CO2 reduction over the competing hydrogen evolution reaction. Tetraalkylammonium cations (TAA+) are widely used as supporting electrolytes in organic media due to their high solubility and conductivity. The alkyl chain length of TAA+ cations is known to influence electron transfer processes in electrochemical systems by the adsorption of TAA+, causing modifications of the double layer. In this work, we elucidate the influence of the cation chain length on the mechanism and selectivity of the CO2RR reaction under controlled dry and wet acetonitrile conditions on copper cathodes. We find that the hydrophobic hydration character of the cation, which can be tuned by the chain length, has an effect on product distribution, altering the reaction pathway. Under dry conditions, smaller cations (TEA+) preferentially promote oxalate production via dimerization of the CO2 ·- intermediate, whereas formate is favored in the presence of water via protonation reaction. Larger cations (TBA+ > TPA+ > TEA+) favor the generation of CO regardless of water content. In situ FTIR analysis showed that TBA+ cations are able to stabilize adsorbed CO more effectively than TEA+, explaining why larger cations generate a higher proportion of CO. Our findings also suggest that higher cation concentrations suppress hydrogen evolution, particularly with larger cations, highlighting the role of cation chain length size and hydrophobic hydration shell.

Effect of alkali-metal cation on oxygen adsorption at Pt single-crystal electrodes in non-aqueous electrolytes

The effect of Group 1 alkali-metal cations (Na+, K+, and Cs+) on the oxygen reduction and evolution reactions (ORR and OER) using dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO)-based electrolytes was investigated. Cyclic voltammetry (CV) utilising different Pt-electrode surfaces (polycrystalline Pt, Pt(111) and Pt(100)) was undertaken to investigate the influence of surface structure upon the ORR and OER. For K+ and Cs+, negligible variation in the CV response (in contrast to Na+) was observed using Pt(111), Pt(100) and Pt(poly) electrodes, consistent with a weak surface-metal/superoxide complex interaction. Indeed, changes in the half-wave potentials (E1/2) and relative intensities of the redox peaks corresponding to superoxy (O2-) and peroxy (O22-) ion formation were consistent with a solution-mediated mechanism for larger cations, such as Cs+. Support for this finding was obtained via in situ shell-isolated nanoparticle-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SHINERS). During the ORR and in the presence of Cs+, O2- and weakly adsorbed caesium superoxide (CsO2) species were detected. Because DMSO was found to strongly interact with the surface at potentials associated with the ORR, CsO2 was readily displaced at more negative potentials via increased solvent adsorption at the surface. This finding highlights the important impact of the solvent during ORR/OER reactions.

Real-Time Monitoring of Surface Effects on the Oxygen Reduction Reaction Mechanism for Aprotic Na-O2 Batteries

Discharging of aprotic sodium-oxygen (Na-O₂) batteries is driven by the cathodic oxygen reduction reaction in the presence of sodium cations (Na⁺-ORR). However, the mechanism of aprotic Na⁺-ORR remains ambiguous and is system dependent. In-situ electrochemical Raman spectroscopy has been employed to study the aprotic Na⁺-ORR processes at three atomically ordered Au(hkl) single-crystal surfaces for the first time, and the structure-intermediates/mechanism relationship has been identified at a molecular level. Direct spectroscopic evidence of superoxide on Au(110) and peroxide on Au(100) and Au(111) as intermediates/products has been obtained. Combining these experimental results with theoretical simulation has revealed that the surface effect of Au(hkl) electrodes on aprotic Na⁺-ORR activity is mainly caused by the different adsorption of Na⁺ and O₂. This work enhances our understanding of aprotic Na⁺-ORR on Au(hkl) surfaces and provides further guidance for the design of improved Na-O₂ batteries.

Trapped interfacial redox introduces reversibility in the oxygen reduction reaction in a non-aqueous Ca2+ electrolyte

Electrochemical investigations of the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) and oxygen evolution reaction (OER) have been conducted in a Ca2+-containing dimethyl sulfoxide electrolyte. While the ORR appears irreversible, the introduction of a tetrabutylammonium perchlorate (TBAClO4) co-salt in excess concentrations results in the gradual appearance of a quasi-reversible OER process. Combining the results of systematic cyclic voltammetry investigations, the degree of reversibility depends on the ion pair competition between Ca2+ and TBA+ cations to interact with generated superoxide (O2 -). When TBA+ is in larger concentrations, and large reductive overpotentials are applied, a quasi-reversible OER peak emerges with repeated cycling (characteristic of formulations without Ca2+ cations). In situ Raman microscopy and rotating ring-disc electrode (RRDE) experiments revealed more about the nature of species formed at the electrode surface and indicated the progressive evolution of a charge storage mechanism based upon trapped interfacial redox. The first electrochemical step involves generation of O2 -, followed primarily by partial passivation of the surface by Ca x O y product formation (the dominant initial reaction). Once this product matrix develops, the subsequent formation of TBA+--O2 - is contained within the Ca x O y product interlayer at the electrode surface and, consequently, undergoes a facile oxidation reaction to regenerate O2.

Oxygen reactions on Pt{hkl} in a non-aqueous Na+ electrolyte: site selective stabilisation of a sodium peroxy species

The oxygen reduction and evolution reaction in the presence of sodium ions in an organic solvent is studied on well-defined Pt electrode surfaces.

Sodium–oxygen battery cathodes utilise the reversible redox species of oxygen in the presence of sodium ions. However, the oxygen reduction and evolution reaction mechanism is yet to be conclusively determined. In order to examine the part played by surface structure in sodium–oxygen electrochemistry for the development of catalytic materials and structures, a method of preparing clean, well-defined Pt electrode surfaces for adsorption studies in aprotic solvents is described. Using cyclic voltammetry (CV) and in situ electrochemical shell-isolated nanoparticle enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SHINERS), the various stages of oxygen reduction as a function of potential have been determined. It is found that on Pt{111} and Pt{110}-(1 × 1) terraces, a long lived surface sodium peroxide species is formed reversibly, whereas on Pt{100} and polycrystalline electrodes, this species is not detected.

Adsorption, surface relaxation and electrolyte structure at Pt(111) electrodes in non-aqueous and aqueous acetonitrile electrolytes

Application of synchrotron X-ray scattering to probe the atomic structure of the interface between Pt(111) electrodes and non-aqueous acetonitrile electrolytes.

Evaluating chemical bonding in dioxides for the development of metal–oxygen batteries: vibrational spectroscopic trends of dioxygenyls, dioxygen, superoxides and peroxides

Analysis of Raman and IR spectral bands of >200 dioxygen species highlighted the effect of the immediate chemical environment on O–O bonding.

Time-resolved SERS study of the oxygen reduction reaction in ionic liquid electrolytes for non-aqueous lithium–oxygen cells

We use the Raman active bands of O₂˙⁻ to probe its changing Lewis basicity through its interaction with various ionic liquid electrolytes at the electrode surface.

Shell isolated nanoparticles for enhanced Raman spectroscopy studies in lithium–oxygen cells

A critical and detailed assessment of using Shell Isolated Nanoparticles for Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SHINERS) on different electrode substrates was carried out, providing relative enhancement factors, as well as an evaluation of the distribution of shell-isolated nanoparticles upon the electrode surfaces. The chemical makeup of surface layers formed upon lithium metal electrodes and the mechanism of the oxygen reduction reaction on carbon substrates relevant to lithium–oxygen cells are studied with the employment of the SHINERS technique. SHINERS enhanced the Raman signal at these surfaces showing a predominant Li₂O based layer on lithium metal in a variety of electrolytes. The formation of LiO₂and Li₂O₂, as well as degradation reactions forming Li₂CO₃, upon planar carbon electrode interfaces and upon composite carbon black electrodes were followed under potential control during the reduction of oxygen in a non-aqueous electrolyte based on dimethyl sulfoxide.

Utilizing in Situ Electrochemical SHINERS for Oxygen Reduction Reaction Studies in Aprotic Electrolytes

Spectroscopic detection of reaction intermediates upon a variety of electrode surfaces is of major interest within physical chemistry. A notable technique in the study of the electrochemical interface has been surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS). The drawback of SERS is that it is limited to roughened gold and silver substrates. Herein we report that shell-isolated nanoparticles for enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SHINERS) can overcome the limitations of SERS and has followed the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR), within a nonaqueous electrolyte, on glassy carbon, gold, palladium, and platinum disk electrodes. The work presented demonstrates SHINERS for spectroelectrochemical studies for applied and fundamental electrochemistry in aprotic electrolytes, especially for the understanding and development of future metal-oxygen battery applications. In particular, we highlight that with the addition of Li(+), both the electrode surface and solvent influence the ORR mechanism, which opens up the possibility of tailoring surfaces to produce desired reaction pathways.