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Jourdain A, Taviot-Gueho C, Nielsen UG, Prévot V, Forano C. In-depth characterization of phosphate intercalated Mg Al Layered double hydroxides and study of the PO 4 release properties. Dalton Trans 2024; 53:9568-9577. [PMID: 38771566 DOI: 10.1039/d4dt00601a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2024]
Abstract
Slow-release fertilizers (SRFs) form the core of innovative strategies in sustainable agriculture. Layered Double Hydroxides (LDH), known for their high capacity to sequester plant nutrients, especially phosphate, are emerging as promising candidates for SRF synthesis. The phosphate release properties of MgAl LDH (with a targeted Mg/Al ratio of 2.0) intercalated with HPO42- anions were assessed in various aqueous environments. A comprehensive analysis, including in-depth chemical and structural characterizations (ICP-OES, XRD, PDF, 27Al NMR, 31P NMR, FTIR, SEM) of the as-prepared phase unveiled a more intricate composition than anticipated for a pure or ideal Mg2Al-HPO4 LDH, encompassing an excess of intercalated phosphate in conjunction with K+. Beyond the intercalated phosphate, solid state 31P NMR speciation identified multiple HxPO4(-3+x) environments, indicating a portion of the phosphate reacting with intralayer Mg2+ to form K-struvite. Additionally, some phosphates were adsorbed onto the surface of amorphous aluminum hydroxide, a side phase formed during MgAl coprecipitation. The phosphate release demonstrated rapid kinetics, occurring within 6 days. Moreover, the released phosphate increased significantly when reducing the Solid/Liquid (S/L) ratio (58%) and further increasing in the presence of carbonate ions (90%). The released phosphate varied from 12% to 90% under different release conditions, transitioning from water to a 3.33 mM NaHCO3 aqueous solution at a low S/L ratio (from 20 mg LDH per mL to 0.02 mg LDH per mL). The simultaneous release of K+, Mg2+, Al3+ indicated the complete dissolution of the K-struvite and partial dissolution of phosphate intercalated MgAl LDH. These results enhanced our understanding of the mechanism governing phosphate release from MgAl LDH, paving the way for potential phosphate recovery by LDH or for the development of LDH-based SRFs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Jourdain
- Université Clermont Auvergne, CNRS, INP Clermont, Institut de Chimie de Clermont-Ferrand, F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France.
| | - Christine Taviot-Gueho
- Université Clermont Auvergne, CNRS, INP Clermont, Institut de Chimie de Clermont-Ferrand, F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France.
| | - Ulla Gro Nielsen
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, 5230 Odense M, Denmark
| | - Vanessa Prévot
- Université Clermont Auvergne, CNRS, INP Clermont, Institut de Chimie de Clermont-Ferrand, F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France.
| | - Claude Forano
- Université Clermont Auvergne, CNRS, INP Clermont, Institut de Chimie de Clermont-Ferrand, F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France.
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Tahsiri Z, Niakousari M, Hosseini SMH, Majdinasab M. Magnetic layered double hydroxide nanosheet as a biomolecular vessel for enzyme immobilization. Int J Biol Macromol 2022; 209:1422-1429. [PMID: 35461871 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2022.04.111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2021] [Revised: 02/20/2022] [Accepted: 04/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Magnetic nanoparticle coated with manganese‑aluminum layered double hydroxide (Fe3O4/Mg-Al-CO3-LDH) was prepared and used as porous support for ficin (EC 3.4.22.3) as a model enzyme. Structural characteristics were studied by XRD, FTIR, SEM and light scattering. The quantity of immobilized ficin on the mentioned LDH and non-magnetic LDH was measured and enzyme activity, stability and reusability were compared. Results revealed that the core and shell structure of Fe3O4/Mg-Al-CO3-LDH makes it better dispersion compared to the pristine Mg-Al-CO3-LDH. Ficin showed strong affinity to absorption of the surface of mentioned LDHs nanosheet especially magnetic LDH, confirmed that the existence of Fe3O4 in the core structure of magnetic Fe3O4/Mg-Al-CO3-LDH caused better dispersion of LDH nanocrystal shell compared to pristine LDH moreover, enzyme which immobilized on the magnetic LDH supports, can be recovered by magnetic interaction. The storage stability of free ficin, immobilized ficin on the Mg-Al-CO3-LDH and Fe3O4/Mg-Al-CO3-LDH during a period of 120 days lost about 75%, 30%, and 20% of their initial activities, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z Tahsiri
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran
| | - M Niakousari
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran.
| | - S M H Hosseini
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran
| | - M Majdinasab
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran
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Singh SK, Srinivasan A, Mitra S, Gooh Pattader PS. Carbon dots and Methylene blue facilitated photometric quantification of Hemoglobin. SPECTROCHIMICA ACTA. PART A, MOLECULAR AND BIOMOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY 2022; 271:120906. [PMID: 35077978 DOI: 10.1016/j.saa.2022.120906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2021] [Revised: 01/08/2022] [Accepted: 01/13/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Early detection and monitoring of any abnormality of Hemoglobin (Hb) concentration in whole blood samples are important as this may be related to anemia, leukemia, dengue, etc. To facilitate quantitative detection and to monitor the hemoglobin level in the blood, we attempt to develop a low-cost, portable point of care (POC) device based on the spectrophotometric principle. Optical sensitivities of carbon quantum dots (CDs) are found to be highly responsive, while there is a selective reaction between Hb and reduced form of Methylene Blue (MBred). The interaction of Hb, MBred, and CDs is delineated using UV-Visible (UV-Vis) spectroscopy. CDs have a characteristic UV-Vis peak at ∼ 347 nm, and it shows a gradual increase in intensity with a slight red shift (∼355 nm) on the progressive increase in Hb concentration. Simultaneously, the colorless MBred is oxidized to its blue oxidized form MBox and its characteristic peak starts reappearing at ∼ 663 nm. These responses are exploited to quantify Hb concentration with a limit of detection (LOD) as low as ∼ 2 g dL-1 in a developed POC device, and the results are validated with the clinical data obtained from a local hospital with reasonably good agreement. This photometric detection approach can be adopted for other quantitative biosensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sunil Kumar Singh
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Assam 781039, India
| | - Aishwarya Srinivasan
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Assam 781039, India
| | - Shirsendu Mitra
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Assam 781039, India.
| | - Partho Sarathi Gooh Pattader
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Assam 781039, India; Centre for Nanotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Assam 781039, India; School of Health Science and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Assam 781039, India.
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Charradi K, Ahmed Z, Thmaini N, Aranda P, Al‐Ghamdi YO, Ocon P, Keshk SMAS, Chtourou R. Incorporating of layered double hydroxide/sepiolite to improve the performance of sulfonated poly(ether ether ketone) composite membranes for proton exchange membrane fuel cells. J Appl Polym Sci 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/app.50364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Khaled Charradi
- Nanomaterials and Systems for Renewable Energy Laboratory Research and Technology Center of Energy Hammam Lif Tunisia
| | - Zakarya Ahmed
- Nanomaterials and Systems for Renewable Energy Laboratory Research and Technology Center of Energy Hammam Lif Tunisia
| | - Noura Thmaini
- Nanomaterials and Systems for Renewable Energy Laboratory Research and Technology Center of Energy Hammam Lif Tunisia
- Materials Science Institute of Madrid (ICMM), CSIC, c/Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz 3, Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
| | - Pilar Aranda
- Materials Science Institute of Madrid (ICMM), CSIC, c/Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz 3, Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
| | - Youssef O. Al‐Ghamdi
- Department of Chemistry College of Science Al‐Zulfi, Majmaah University Al‐Majmaah Saudi Arabia
| | - Pilar Ocon
- Departamento de Química Física Aplicada Universidad Autónoma de Madrid Madrid Spain
| | - Sherif M. A. S. Keshk
- Nanomaterials and Systems for Renewable Energy Laboratory Research and Technology Center of Energy Hammam Lif Tunisia
| | - Radouane Chtourou
- Nanomaterials and Systems for Renewable Energy Laboratory Research and Technology Center of Energy Hammam Lif Tunisia
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Alcântara ACS, Darder M, Aranda P, Ruiz-Hitzky E. Zein-layered hydroxide biohybrids: strategies of synthesis and characterization. MATERIALS 2020; 13:ma13040825. [PMID: 32054135 PMCID: PMC7079599 DOI: 10.3390/ma13040825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2019] [Revised: 01/27/2020] [Accepted: 01/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
This work constitutes a basic study about the first exploration on the preparation of biohybrids based on the corn protein zein and layered metal hydroxides, such as layered double hydroxides (LDH) and layered single hydroxides (LSHs). For this purpose, MgAl layered double hydroxide and the Co2(OH)3 layered single hydroxide were selected as hosts, and various synthetic approaches were explored to achieve the formation of the zein-layered hydroxide biohybrids, profiting from the presence of negatively charged groups in zein in basic medium. Zein-based layered hydroxide biohybrids were characterized by diverse physicochemical techniques such as X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), thermogravimetric analysis/differential thermal analysis (TG/DTA), solid state 13C cross-polarization magical angle spinning nuclear magnetic resonance (CP-MAS NMR), field emission-scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), etc., which suggest that the different synthesis procedures employed and the anion located in the interlayer region of the inorganic host material seem to have a strong influence on the final features of the biohybrids, resulting in mixed, single intercalated, or highly exfoliated intercalated phases. Thus, the resulting biohybrids based on zein and layered hydroxides could have interest in applications in biomedicine, biosensing, materials for electronic devices, catalysis, and photocatalysis.
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Assembly of nitroreductase and layered double hydroxides toward functional biohybrid materials. J Colloid Interface Sci 2018; 533:71-81. [PMID: 30145442 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2018.07.126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2018] [Revised: 07/24/2018] [Accepted: 07/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The development of new multifunctional materials integrating catalytically active and selective biomolecules, such as enzymes, as well as easily removable and robust inorganic supports that allow their use and reuse, is a subject of ongoing attention. In this work, the nitroreductase NfrA2/YncD (NR) from Bacillus megaterium Mes11 strain was successfully immobilized by adsorption and coprecipitation on layered double hydroxide (LDH) materials with different compositions (MgAl-LDH and ZnAl-LDH), particle sizes and morphologies, and using different enzyme/LDH mass ratios (Q). The materials were characterized and the immobilization and catalytic performance of the biohybrids were studied and optimized. The nitroreductase-immobilized on the nanosized MgAl-LDH displayed the best catalytic performance with 42-46% of catalytic retention and>80% of immobilization yield at saturation values of enzyme loading Cs ≈ 0.6 g NR/g LDH (Q = 0.8). The adsorption process displayed high enzyme-LDH affinity interactions yielding to a stable biohybrid material. The increase in the amount of enzyme loading favoured the catalytic performance of the biohybrid due to the better preservation of the native conformation. The biohybrid was reused several times with partial activity retention after 4 cycles. In addition, the biohybrid was successfully dried maintaining the catalytic activity for several weeks when it was stored in its dry form. Finally, thin films of NR@LDH biohybrid deposited on glassy carbon electrodes were evaluated as a modified electrode applied for nitro-compound detection. The results show that these biohybrids can be used in biotechnology applications to efficiently detect compounds such as dinitrotoluene. The search for new non-hazardous chemical designs preventing or reducing the use of aggressive chemical processes for human being and the environment is the common philosophy within sustainable chemistry.
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Guo Y, Wang J, Li D, Tang P, Leroux F, Feng Y. Micrometer-sized dihydrogenphosphate-intercalated layered double hydroxides: synthesis, selective infrared absorption properties, and applications as agricultural films. Dalton Trans 2018; 47:3144-3154. [PMID: 29334384 DOI: 10.1039/c7dt03483k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
High-performance heat-retention agents for multifunctional green agricultural films are today largely suitable to increase the production yield as well as to save energy. Here, an adapted ammonia releasing hydrothermal method was used to produce a series of micrometer-sized carbonate-layered double hydroxide (CO3-LDH) precursors of sizes ranging from 1.32 μm to 8.64 μm by simply adjusting the feeding Mg2+ concentration from 0.80 mol L-1 to 0.20 mol L-1. From these pristine LDH materials, μm-sized dihydrogenphosphate-intercalated LDHs (H2PO4-LDHs) were prepared by an anion-exchange method. The structure, the platelet size, and the associated selective IR absorption properties of the H2PO4-LDH and the derivative H2PO4-LDH/EVA composite as well as the related visible transmittance and the photostability of the H2PO4-LDH/EVA film were investigated. The results show that the selective IR absorption in the wavelength range of 7-14 μm enabling the heat retention of the H2PO4-LDHs and H2PO4-LDH/EVA composites depends on the corresponding number-averaged particle size of H2PO4-LDH in the range of 2.01 μm to 8.80 μm. Compared with EVA, the H2PO4-LDH/EVA composites demonstrate a significant improvement of selective IR absorption, while maintaining acceptable visible transmittance, and similar photostability. An optimized particle size of H2PO4-LDH of ca. 5.85 μm leads to 60% selective IR absorption and 64% selective IR absorption when dispersed in EVA, while the polymer free of filler exhibits less than 50% absorption in the 7-14 μm IR domain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yixuan Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering, Beijing Engineering Center for Hierarchical Catalysts, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, No. 15 Beisanhuan East Road, Beijing 100029, China.
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Forano C, Bruna F, Mousty C, Prevot V. Interactions between Biological Cells and Layered Double Hydroxides: Towards Functional Materials. CHEM REC 2018. [PMID: 29517856 DOI: 10.1002/tcr.201700102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
This review highlights the current research on the interactions between biological cells and Layered Double Hydroxides (LDH). The as-prepared biohybrid materials appear extremely attractive in diverse fields of application relating to health care, environment and energy production. We describe how thanks to the main features of biological cells and LDH layers, various strategies of assemblies can be carried out for constructing smart biofunctional materials. The interactions between the two components are described with a peculiar attention to the adsorption, biocompatibilization, LDH layer internalization, antifouling and antimicrobial properties. The most significant achievements including authors' results, involving biological cells and LDH assemblies in waste water treatment, bioremediation and bioenergy generation are specifically addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claude Forano
- Université Clermont Auvergne, CNRS, Sigma-Clermont, ICCF, UMR 6296, F-63000, CLERMONT-FERRAND, FRANCE
| | - Felipe Bruna
- Université Clermont Auvergne, CNRS, Sigma-Clermont, ICCF, UMR 6296, F-63000, CLERMONT-FERRAND, FRANCE
| | - Christine Mousty
- Université Clermont Auvergne, CNRS, Sigma-Clermont, ICCF, UMR 6296, F-63000, CLERMONT-FERRAND, FRANCE
| | - Vanessa Prevot
- Université Clermont Auvergne, CNRS, Sigma-Clermont, ICCF, UMR 6296, F-63000, CLERMONT-FERRAND, FRANCE
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Shen L, Jiang X, Chen Z, Fu D, Li Q, Ouyang T, Wang Y. Chemical reactive features of novel amino acids intercalated layered double hydroxides in As(III) and As(V) adsorption. CHEMOSPHERE 2017; 176:57-66. [PMID: 28259079 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.02.100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2016] [Revised: 12/27/2016] [Accepted: 02/19/2017] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Layered double hydroxides (LDHs) intercalated with amino acids such as methionine (Met) were synthesized as new adsorbents to remediate arsenic-polluted water. This Zn2Al-Met-LDHs, identified with the formula of Zn0.7Al0.3(OH)2(Met)0.3·0.32H2O, has good thermal stability. Adsorption experiments with Zn2Al-Met-LDHs showed that the residual arsenic in solution could be reduced below the regulation limit, and this adsorption process fitted Langmuir isotherm and the pseudo-second-order kinetics well. A remarkably high removal efficiency and the maximum adsorption capacity for As(III) were achieved, 96.7% and 94.1 mg/g, respectively, at 298 K. The desorption efficiency of As(III) from the arsenic-saturated Zn2Al-Met-LDHs (<8.7%), far less than that of As(V), promises a specific and reliable uptake of As(III) in sorts of solutions. More importantly, a complete and in-depth spectra analysis through FTIR, XPS and NMR was conducted to explain the excellent performance of Zn2Al-Met-LDHs in arsenic removal. Herein, two special chemical reactions were proposed as the dominant mechanisms, i.e., hydrogen bonding between the carboxyl group of the host Met and the hydroxyl group of As(III) or As(V), and the formation of a chelate ring between the guest As(III) and the S, N bidentate ligands of the intercalated Met in the LDHs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liang Shen
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, The Key Laboratory for Synthetic Biotechnology of Xiamen City, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, PR China
| | - Xiuli Jiang
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, The Key Laboratory for Synthetic Biotechnology of Xiamen City, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, PR China; Department of Environment Engineering, College of the Environment and Ecology, and The Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Coastal and Wetland Ecosystem, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, PR China; School of Environmental Science & Engineering, South University of Science and Technology of China, Shenzhen, 518055, PR China
| | - Zheng Chen
- Department of Environment Engineering, College of the Environment and Ecology, and The Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Coastal and Wetland Ecosystem, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, PR China
| | - Dun Fu
- Department of Environment Engineering, College of the Environment and Ecology, and The Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Coastal and Wetland Ecosystem, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, PR China
| | - Qingbiao Li
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, The Key Laboratory for Synthetic Biotechnology of Xiamen City, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, PR China; Department of Environment Engineering, College of the Environment and Ecology, and The Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Coastal and Wetland Ecosystem, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, PR China; College of Chemistry and Life Science, Quanzhou Normal University, Quanzhou, 362000, PR China
| | - Tong Ouyang
- Department of Environment Engineering, College of the Environment and Ecology, and The Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Coastal and Wetland Ecosystem, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, PR China.
| | - Yuanpeng Wang
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, The Key Laboratory for Synthetic Biotechnology of Xiamen City, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, PR China.
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Tokudome Y, Fukui M, Tarutani N, Nishimura S, Prevot V, Forano C, Poologasundarampillai G, Lee PD, Takahashi M. High-Density Protein Loading on Hierarchically Porous Layered Double Hydroxide Composites with a Rational Mesostructure. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2016; 32:8826-8833. [PMID: 27501777 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.6b01925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Hierarchically porous biocompatible Mg-Al-Cl-type layered double hydroxide (LDH) composites containing aluminum hydroxide (Alhy) have been prepared using a phase-separation process. The sol-gel synthesis allows for the hierarchical pores of the LDH-Alhy composites to be tuned, leading to a high specific solid surface area per unit volume available for high-molecular-weight protein adsorptions. A linear relationship between the effective surface area, SEFF, and loading capacity of a model protein, bovine serum albumin (BSA), is established following successful control of the structure of the LDH-Alhy composite. The threshold of the mean pore diameter, Dpm, above which BSA is effectively adsorbed on the surface of LDH-Alhy composites, is deduced as 20 nm. In particular, LDH-Alhy composite aerogels obtained via supercritical drying exhibit an extremely high capacity for protein loading (996 mg/g) as a result of a large mean mesopore diameter (>30 nm). The protein loading on LDH-Alhy is >14 times that of a reference LDH material (70 mg/g) prepared via a standard procedure. Importantly, BSA molecules pre-adsorbed on porous composites were successfully released on soaking in ionic solutions (HPO4(2-) and Cl(-) aqueous). The superior capability of the biocompatible LDH materials for loading, encapsulation, and releasing large quantities of proteins was clearly demonstrated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasuaki Tokudome
- Department of Materials Science, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka Prefecture University , Sakai, Osaka 599-8531, Japan
| | - Megu Fukui
- Department of Materials Science, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka Prefecture University , Sakai, Osaka 599-8531, Japan
| | - Naoki Tarutani
- Department of Materials Science, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka Prefecture University , Sakai, Osaka 599-8531, Japan
| | - Sari Nishimura
- Department of Materials Science, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka Prefecture University , Sakai, Osaka 599-8531, Japan
| | - Vanessa Prevot
- Institut de Chimie de Clermont-Ferrand (ICCF), Université Clermont Auvergne, Université Blaise Pascal , BP 10448, F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France
- Institut de Chimie de Clermont-Ferrand (ICCF), UMR 6296, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) , F-63171 Aubiere, France
| | - Claude Forano
- Institut de Chimie de Clermont-Ferrand (ICCF), Université Clermont Auvergne, Université Blaise Pascal , BP 10448, F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France
- Institut de Chimie de Clermont-Ferrand (ICCF), UMR 6296, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) , F-63171 Aubiere, France
| | | | - Peter D Lee
- School of Materials, The University of Manchester , Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, United Kingdom
| | - Masahide Takahashi
- Department of Materials Science, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka Prefecture University , Sakai, Osaka 599-8531, Japan
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Stabilization of hemoglobin in double layered hydroxides to be used in carbon monoxide bio-oxidation I-synthesis and characterization. Catal Today 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cattod.2015.11.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Bruna F, Pereira MG, Polizeli MDLTM, Valim JB. Starch Biocatalyst Based on α-Amylase-Mg/Al-Layered Double Hydroxide Nanohybrids. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2015; 7:18832-18842. [PMID: 26259168 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.5b05668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The design of new biocatalysts through the immobilization of enzymes, improving their stability and reuse, plays a major role in the development of sustainable methodologies toward the so-called green chemistry. In this work, α-amylase (AAM) biocatalyst based on Mg3Al-layered double-hydroxide (LDH) matrix was successfully developed with the adsorption method. The adsorption process was studied and optimized as a function of time and enzyme concentration. The biocatalyst was characterized, and the mechanism of interaction between AAM and LDH, as well as the immobilization effects on the catalytic activity, was elucidated. The adsorption process was fast and irreversible, thus yielding a stable biohybrid material. The immobilized AAM partially retained its enzymatic activity, and the biocatalyst rapidly hydrolyzed starch in an aqueous solution with enhanced efficiency at intermediate loading values of ca. 50 mg/g of AAM/LDH. Multiple attachments through electrostatic interactions affected the conformation of the immobilized enzyme on the LDH surface. The biocatalyst was successfully stored in its dry form, retaining 100% of its catalytic activity. The results reveal the potential usefulness of a LDH compound as a support of α-amylase for the hydrolysis of starch that may be applied in industrial and pharmaceutical processes as a simple, environmentally friendly, and low-cost biocatalyst.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felipe Bruna
- Departamento de Química, Faculdade de Filosofia, Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto and ‡Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Filosofia, Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo , Avenida Bandeirantes 3900, Monte Alegre, 14.040-901 Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Marita G Pereira
- Departamento de Química, Faculdade de Filosofia, Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto and ‡Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Filosofia, Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo , Avenida Bandeirantes 3900, Monte Alegre, 14.040-901 Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Maria de Lourdes T M Polizeli
- Departamento de Química, Faculdade de Filosofia, Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto and ‡Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Filosofia, Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo , Avenida Bandeirantes 3900, Monte Alegre, 14.040-901 Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - João B Valim
- Departamento de Química, Faculdade de Filosofia, Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto and ‡Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Filosofia, Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo , Avenida Bandeirantes 3900, Monte Alegre, 14.040-901 Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
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Rojas R, Giacomelli CE. Size-tunable LDH–protein hybrids toward the optimization of drug nanocarriers. J Mater Chem B 2015; 3:2778-2785. [DOI: 10.1039/c4tb01992j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Stabilization of LDH nanoparticles containing chloride and dodecylsulfate with BSA points to optimization of drug nanocarriers based on these solids.
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Affiliation(s)
- R. Rojas
- INFIQC-CONICET
- Departamento de Fisicoquímica
- Facultad de Ciencias Químicas
- Universidad Nacional de Córdoba
- Ciudad Universitaria
| | - C. E. Giacomelli
- INFIQC-CONICET
- Departamento de Fisicoquímica
- Facultad de Ciencias Químicas
- Universidad Nacional de Córdoba
- Ciudad Universitaria
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14
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Halma M, Mousty C, Forano C, Sancelme M, Besse-Hoggan P, Prevot V. Bacteria encapsulated in layered double hydroxides: towards an efficient bionanohybrid for pollutant degradation. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2014; 126:344-50. [PMID: 25497161 DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2014.11.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2014] [Revised: 11/03/2014] [Accepted: 11/19/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
A soft chemical process was successfully used to immobilize Pseudomonas sp. strain ADP (ADP), a well-known atrazine (herbicide) degrading bacterium, within a Mg2Al-layered double hydroxide host matrix. This approach is based on a simple, quick and ecofriendly direct coprecipitation of metal salts in the presence of a colloidal suspension of bacteria in water. It must be stressed that by this process the mass ratio between inorganic and biological components was easily tuned ranging from 2 to 40. This ratio strongly influenced the biological activity of the bacteria towards atrazine degradation. The better results were obtained for ratios of 10 or lower, leading to an enhanced atrazine degradation rate and percentage compared to free cells. Moreover the biohybrid material maintained this biodegradative activity after four cycles of reutilization and 3 weeks storage at 4°C. The ADP@MgAl-LDH bionanohybrid materials were completely characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), FTIR spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis and scanning and transmission electronic microscopy (SEM and TEM) evidencing the successful immobilization of ADP within the inorganic matrix. This synthetic approach could be readily extended to other microbial whole-cell immobilization of interest for new developments in biotechnological systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matilte Halma
- Clermont Université, Université Blaise Pascal, Institut de Chimie de Clermont-Ferrand, BP 10448, F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France; CNRS, UMR 6296, ICCF, F-63171 Aubiere, France
| | - Christine Mousty
- Clermont Université, Université Blaise Pascal, Institut de Chimie de Clermont-Ferrand, BP 10448, F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France; CNRS, UMR 6296, ICCF, F-63171 Aubiere, France
| | - Claude Forano
- Clermont Université, Université Blaise Pascal, Institut de Chimie de Clermont-Ferrand, BP 10448, F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France; CNRS, UMR 6296, ICCF, F-63171 Aubiere, France
| | - Martine Sancelme
- Clermont Université, Université Blaise Pascal, Institut de Chimie de Clermont-Ferrand, BP 10448, F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France; CNRS, UMR 6296, ICCF, F-63171 Aubiere, France
| | - Pascale Besse-Hoggan
- Clermont Université, Université Blaise Pascal, Institut de Chimie de Clermont-Ferrand, BP 10448, F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France; CNRS, UMR 6296, ICCF, F-63171 Aubiere, France
| | - Vanessa Prevot
- Clermont Université, Université Blaise Pascal, Institut de Chimie de Clermont-Ferrand, BP 10448, F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France; CNRS, UMR 6296, ICCF, F-63171 Aubiere, France.
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15
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Zhan T, Yang Q, Zhang Y, Wang X, Xu J, Hou W. Structural characterization and electrocatalytic application of hemoglobin immobilized in layered double hydroxides modified with hydroxyl functionalized ionic liquid. J Colloid Interface Sci 2014; 433:49-57. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2014.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2014] [Revised: 07/07/2014] [Accepted: 07/08/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tianrong Zhan
- State Key Laboratory Base of Eco-chemical Engineering, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Qingdao University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266042, China.
| | - Qi Yang
- State Key Laboratory Base of Eco-chemical Engineering, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Qingdao University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266042, China
| | - Yumei Zhang
- State Key Laboratory Base of Eco-chemical Engineering, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Qingdao University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266042, China
| | - Xinjun Wang
- State Key Laboratory Base of Eco-chemical Engineering, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Qingdao University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266042, China
| | - Jie Xu
- State Key Laboratory Base of Eco-chemical Engineering, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Qingdao University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266042, China
| | - Wanguo Hou
- Key Laboratory of Colloid & Interface Chemistry (Ministry of Education), Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China.
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16
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Liu ZL, Tian DY, Li SP, Li XD, Lu TH. MTX/LDHs hybrids synthesized from reverse microemulsions: particle control and bioassay study. Int J Pharm 2014; 473:414-25. [PMID: 25089502 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2014.07.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2014] [Revised: 07/03/2014] [Accepted: 07/25/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Reverse microemulsions have been used to control the growth of methotrexatum intercalated layered double hydroxides (MTX/LDHs) hybrids, and the influence of reaction temperature, water content (noted as ω) and MTX content (noted as R) on the properties of MTX/LDHs was systematically investigated. The synthesized hybrids were then characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM), etc. XRD and FTIR investigations manifest the successful intercalation of MTX anions into the interlayer of LDHs. The process of particle control has been explored emphatically, and it was found that temperature, water content, and addition of solutes can determine the structural evolution as well as the size of the "water pools" in the reverse microemulsions, while ω plays a critical role in the particle growth. Then in vitro release tests of all hybrids in pH 7.4 phosphate buffered saline (PBS) were explored, and the parabolic diffusion model simulate the release progress best, showing that the release process belongs to multi phase diffusion process via ion exchange. At last, the anticancer efficacy of all MTX/LDHs hybrids was also estimated by MTT assay with the human lung cancer (A549). It is found for the first time that the drug efficacy is closely associated with dispersion coefficient (noted as ϵ).
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhen-Lei Liu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Biofunctional Material, College of Chemistry and Material Science, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210023, PR China
| | - De-Ying Tian
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Biofunctional Material, College of Chemistry and Material Science, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210023, PR China
| | - Shu-Ping Li
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Biofunctional Material, College of Chemistry and Material Science, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210023, PR China.
| | - Xiao-Dong Li
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Biofunctional Material, College of Chemistry and Material Science, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210023, PR China; Shenzhen Research Institute of Xiamen University, Shenzhen 518057, PR China
| | - Tian-Hong Lu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Biofunctional Material, College of Chemistry and Material Science, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210023, PR China
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17
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Qiao F, Shi W, Dong J, Lv W, Ai S. Functional hybrids of layered double hydroxides with hemin: synergistic effect for peroxynitrite-scavenging activity. RSC Adv 2014. [DOI: 10.1039/c4ra08200a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
The interaction between heme and LDHs results in a synergistic effect, which leads to an efficient ONOO−scavenging ability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fengmin Qiao
- College of Chemistry and Material Science
- Shandong Agricultural University
- Taian, P. R. China
| | - Weijie Shi
- College of Chemistry and Material Science
- Shandong Agricultural University
- Taian, P. R. China
| | - Jing Dong
- College of Chemistry and Material Science
- Shandong Agricultural University
- Taian, P. R. China
| | - Wei Lv
- College of Chemistry and Material Science
- Shandong Agricultural University
- Taian, P. R. China
| | - Shiyun Ai
- College of Chemistry and Material Science
- Shandong Agricultural University
- Taian, P. R. China
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18
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Touisni N, Charmantray F, Helaine V, Forano C, Hecquet L, Mousty C. Optimized immobilization of transketolase from E. coli in MgAl-layered double hydroxides. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2013; 112:452-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2013.07.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2013] [Accepted: 07/08/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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19
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Vialat P, Leroux F, Taviot-Gueho C, Villemure G, Mousty C. Insights into the electrochemistry of (CoxNi(1−x))2Al–NO3 Layered Double Hydroxides. Electrochim Acta 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2013.06.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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20
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Novel hybrids of Cu2+ ternary complexes of salicylidene-amino acid Schiff base with phenanthroline (or bipyridine) intercalated in Mg/Al-NO3-layered double hydroxide. CHINESE CHEM LETT 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cclet.2013.03.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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21
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Mousty C, Prévot V. Hybrid and biohybrid layered double hydroxides for electrochemical analysis. Anal Bioanal Chem 2013; 405:3513-23. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-013-6797-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2012] [Revised: 01/25/2013] [Accepted: 01/28/2013] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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22
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Sun W, Guo Y, Lu Y, Hu A, Shi F, Li T, Sun Z. Electrochemical biosensor based on graphene, Mg2Al layered double hydroxide and hemoglobin composite. Electrochim Acta 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2012.12.088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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23
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Miranda RA, Finocchio E, Llorca J, Medina F, Ramis G, Sueiras JE, Segarra AM. Synthesis and characterization of poly-l-leucine initialized and immobilized by rehydrated hydrotalcite: understanding stability and the nature of interaction. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2013; 15:15645-59. [DOI: 10.1039/c3cp52187g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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24
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Li M, Ji H, Wang Y, Liu L, Gao F. MgFe-layered double hydroxide modified electrodes for direct electron transfer of heme proteins. Biosens Bioelectron 2012; 38:239-44. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2012.05.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2012] [Revised: 05/25/2012] [Accepted: 05/28/2012] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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25
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Minagawa K, Berber MR, Hafez IH, Mori T, Tanaka M. Target delivery and controlled release of the chemopreventive drug sulindac by using an advanced layered double hydroxide nanomatrix formulation system. JOURNAL OF MATERIALS SCIENCE. MATERIALS IN MEDICINE 2012; 23:973-981. [PMID: 22350776 DOI: 10.1007/s10856-012-4566-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2011] [Accepted: 01/25/2012] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Target delivery and controlled release of the chemopreventive drug sulindac that possesses low water solubility present a great challenge for its pharmaceutical industry. Here, we offered an advanced nanomatrix formulation system of sulindac based on layered double hydroxide materials. The X-ray analysis and infrared spectroscopy confirmed the incorporation of sulindac into the gallery of the layered double hydroxides. The incorporation ratios of sulindac were recorded to be 45, 31 and 20 for coprecipitation, anion-exchange and reconstruction techniques, respectively. The scanning electron microscopy showed a nanomatrix-structure of ~50 nm. The release studies of sulindac-nanomatrix showed a 96% controlled release at the small intestine solution during 3 h(s), indicating an enhancement in the dissolution profile of sulindac after the matrix formation. The layered structure of the matrix supplied sulindac with a well-ordered structure and a relatively hydrophobic microenvironment that controlled the guest hydrolysis and reactivity during the release process. The laminar structure of layered double hydroxides offered a safe preservation for sulindac against photodecarboxylation, and enhanced the drug thermal stability from 190 to 230° C. The ionic electrostatic interaction of sulindac through its acidic group with layered double hydroxides demolished the gastrointestinal ulceration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keiji Minagawa
- Institute of Technology and Science, The University of Tokushima, Tokushima, Japan.
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26
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Si S, Taubert A, Mantion A, Rogez G, Rabu P. Peptide-intercalated layered metal hydroxides: effect of peptide chain length and side chain functionality on structural, optical and magnetic properties. Chem Sci 2012. [DOI: 10.1039/c2sc01087a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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27
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Hybrid layered double hydroxides-polypyrrole composites for construction of glucose/O2 biofuel cell. Electrochim Acta 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2011.01.101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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28
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Hong J, Wang Y, Pan J, Zhong Z, Xu R. Self-assembled dye-layered double hydroxide-Pt nanoparticles: a novel H2 evolution system with remarkably enhanced stability. NANOSCALE 2011; 3:4655-4661. [PMID: 21975957 DOI: 10.1039/c1nr10628g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
A novel photocatalytic hydrogen evolution system was constructed by using well-dispersed layered double hydroxide (LDH) to immobilize the photosensitizer (rose bengal, RB) and photocatalyst (Pt). The produced amount of H(2) from such a self-assembled RB-LDH-Pt system is a few times more than that from the Free system (without LDH). Moreover, RB-LDH-Pt can be reused for at least 6 times (still having 64% of the activity in the 6(th) run) by a simple method of centrifugation which makes this system more economical by recycling the expensive Pt. The total turnover number (TON) obtained after six runs for RB-LDH-Pt was calculated to be 304 based on Pt, which gave at least 13-fold enhancement compared with that from the Free system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jindui Hong
- School of Chemical & Biomedical Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 62 Nanyang Drive, Singapore 637459
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29
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Bellezza F, Alberani A, Posati T, Tarpani L, Latterini L, Cipiciani A. Protein interactions with nanosized hydrotalcites of different composition. J Inorg Biochem 2011; 106:134-42. [PMID: 22115829 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2011.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2011] [Revised: 09/09/2011] [Accepted: 10/03/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Nanosized hydrotalcite-like compounds (HTlc) with different chemical composition were prepared and used to study protein adsorption. Two soft proteins, myoglobin (Mb) and bovine serum albumin (BSA), were chosen to investigate the nature of the forces controlling the adsorption and how these depend on the chemical composition of the support. Both proteins strongly interact with HTlc exhibiting in most cases a Langmuir-type adsorption. Mb showed a higher affinity for Nickel Chromium (NiCr-HTlc) than for Nickel Aluminum (NiAl-HTlc), while for BSA no significant differences between supports were found. Adsorption experiments in the presence of additives showed that proteins exhibited different types of interactions onto the same HTlc surface and that the adsorption was strongly suppressed by the addition of disodium hydrogen phosphate (Na(2)HPO(4)). Atomic force microscopy images showed that the adsorption of both proteins onto nanoparticles was followed by the aggregation of biocomposites, with a more disordered structure for BSA. Fluorescence measurements for adsorbed Mb showed that the inorganic nanoparticles induced conformational changes in the biomolecules; in particular, the interactions with HTlc surface quenched the tryptophan fluorescence and this process was particularly efficient for NiCr-HTlc. The adsorption of BSA onto the HTlc nanoparticles induced a selective quenching of the exposed fluorescent residues, as indicated by the blue-shift of the emission spectra of tryptophan residues and by the shortening of the fluorescence decay times.
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