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Dominant hydrophobic interactions with β-glucan in nanoarchitectonics with mixed Langmuir monolayers of cholesterol/dipalmitoyl phosphatidyl choline. Biointerphases 2022; 17:031005. [PMID: 35688674 DOI: 10.1116/6.0001866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The polysaccharide β-glucan, found in the cell wall of cereals such as wheat, oats, and barley, is believed to lower the concentration of bad cholesterol in humans, but the molecular-level mechanisms responsible for such an action are unknown. In this study, we use Langmuir monolayers of cholesterol and dipalmitoyl phosphatidyl choline (DPPC) as cell membrane models that are made to interact with β-glucan. Neat cholesterol and mixed cholesterol/DPPC monolayers were expanded upon incorporating β-glucan from the aqueous subphase. This incorporation was found to induce ordering in mixed monolayers and dehydration of the carbonyl group at higher cholesterol concentrations. These effects are attributed to hydrophobic interactions as identified with polarization-modulated infrared reflection-absorption spectroscopy. They correlate well with the hypothesis that cholesterol levels can be lowered by the formation of soluble fibers with β-glucan through hydrophobic interactions, blocking cholesterol absorption by the organism.
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Amunugama S, Asempa E, Tripathi RC, Wanniarachchi D, Baydoun H, Hoffmann P, Jakubikova E, Verani CN. Electron transport through a (terpyridine)ruthenium metallo-surfactant containing a redox-active aminocatechol derivative. Dalton Trans 2022; 51:8425-8436. [PMID: 35593395 DOI: 10.1039/d2dt00938b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Aiming to develop a new class of metallosurfactants with unidirectional electron transfer properties, a (terpyridine) ruthenium complex containing a semiquinone derivative L2, namely [RuIII(Lterpy)(L2)Cl]PF6 (1), was synthesized and structurally characterized as a solid and in solution. The electronic and redox behaviour of 1 was studied experimentally as well as by means of DFT methods, and is indicative of significant orbital mixing and overlap between metal and ligands. The complex forms stable Pockels-Langmuir films at the air-water interface and allows for the formation of thin films onto gold electrodes to prepare nanoscale Au|LB 1|Au junctions for current-voltage (I/V) analysis. Complex 1 shows asymmetric electron transfer with a maximum rectification ratio of 32 based on tunnelling through MOs of the aminocatechol derivative.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samudra Amunugama
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48202, USA.
| | - Eyram Asempa
- Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA.
| | | | | | - Habib Baydoun
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48202, USA.
| | - Peter Hoffmann
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48201, USA.
| | - Elena Jakubikova
- Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA.
| | - Cláudio N Verani
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48202, USA.
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3
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Yan C, Paige MF. Pattern Formation in Phase-Separated Langmuir and Langmuir Monolayer Films. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2021; 37:8357-8369. [PMID: 34236880 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.1c00642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Mixed monolayer films comprising hydrogenated and fluorinated surfactants can undergo phase separation to produce interfaces with diverse structures at the micrometer and nanometer scales. This review discusses our progress over the past decade to probe the relationship that exists between the molecular structure of the surfactants that comprise the films and the overall patterns formed in the monolayers. We review two main classes of mixed perfluorocarbon-hydrocarbon surfactant systems, including fatty acids and a recently developed family of EDTA-based gemini surfactants. In addition to summarizing the state-of-the-art of this field, the key scientific questions and relationships that require further elucidation are discussed, along with directions for continuing research into this fascinating area of research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ci Yan
- Department of Chemistry, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 5C9, Canada
| | - Matthew F Paige
- Department of Chemistry, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 5C9, Canada
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4
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Lamarche RM, DeWolf C. ω-Thiolation of Phenolic Surfactants Enables Controlled Conversion between Extended, Bolaform, and Multilayer Conformations. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2020; 36:2847-2857. [PMID: 32101013 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.9b03670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The self-assembly of ω-thiolated surfactants onto gold is a well-studied phenomenon; however, control over the final organization within the thin films is either limited or requires extensive pre- and post-deposition chemical modifications. On the other hand, Langmuir-Blodgett deposition from the air-water interfaces affords a high degree of control over lateral organization within the film, yet it is generally employed to create physisorbed, soft matter films. Despite this, relatively little is known about the impact of the ω-thiolation on either the air-water of deposited film organization. Here, we show that the introduction of a terminal hydrophilic thiol on a phenolic surfactant does not necessarily disrupt a highly organized film nor does it necessarily induce a bolaform conformation at the interface. We show that the relative proportions of different conformations can be controlled using pH, relaxation time, surface pressure, and combinations thereof. Moreover, at high pH, the system undergoes a monolayer-to-multilayer transition wherein well-defined multilayer structures and morphologies are generated. These multilayers appear to comprise a single bolaform conformation atop an extended-chain condensed phase. We demonstrate that these structures can be transferred using Langmuir-Blodgett deposition demonstrating that combining these two approaches has the potential to achieve greater control over the functional properties of robust, chemisorbed films.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renaud Miclette Lamarche
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Centre for NanoScience Research, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke St. West, Montreal, Quebec H4B 1R6, Canada
| | - Christine DeWolf
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Centre for NanoScience Research, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke St. West, Montreal, Quebec H4B 1R6, Canada
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Brezesinski G, Calow ADJ, Pereira CL, Seeberger PH. Thermodynamic and Structural Behavior of α-Galactosylceramide and C6-Functionalized α-GalCer in 2D Layers at the Air-Liquid Interface. Chembiochem 2020; 21:241-247. [PMID: 31544285 PMCID: PMC7004034 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201900491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
α-Galactosylceramide (α-GalCer; KRN7000) is a ligand for the glycoprotein CD1d that presents lipid antigens to natural killer T cells. Therefore, KRN7000 as well as some modified versions thereof have been widely investigated as part of novel immunotherapies. To examine the impact of structural modification, we investigated KRN7000 and C6-modified KRN7000 at the air-liquid interface using monolayer isotherms, BAM, IRRAS, GIXD, and TRXF. The amino group has no influence on the highly ordered sub-gel structures found at lateral pressures relevant for biological membranes. Neither lateral compression nor the protonation state of the amino group has a measurable effect on the lattice structure, which is defined by strong and rigid intermolecular hydrogen bonds. However, the first-order phase transition found for the C6-functionalized α-GalCer is connected with an extraordinary surface-inhibited nucleation. Our study demonstrates that KRN7000 can be functionalized at C6 without significantly changing the structural properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerald Brezesinski
- Max Planck Institute of Colloids and InterfacesBiomolecular Systems DepartmentAm Mühlenberg 114476PotsdamGermany
| | - Adam D. J. Calow
- Max Planck Institute of Colloids and InterfacesBiomolecular Systems DepartmentAm Mühlenberg 114476PotsdamGermany
| | - Claney L. Pereira
- Max Planck Institute of Colloids and InterfacesBiomolecular Systems DepartmentAm Mühlenberg 114476PotsdamGermany
| | - Peter H. Seeberger
- Max Planck Institute of Colloids and InterfacesBiomolecular Systems DepartmentAm Mühlenberg 114476PotsdamGermany
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Stefaniu C, Wölk C, Brezesinski G, Schneck E. Relationship between structure and molecular interactions in monolayers of specially designed aminolipids. NANOSCALE ADVANCES 2019; 1:3529-3536. [PMID: 36133531 PMCID: PMC9418614 DOI: 10.1039/c9na00355j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2019] [Accepted: 07/23/2019] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Artificial cationic lipids are already recognized as highly efficient gene therapy tools. Here, we focus on another potential use of aminolipids, in their electrically-uncharged state, for the formation of covalently cross-linked, one-molecule-thin films at interfaces. Such films are envisioned for future (bio-)materials applications. To this end, Langmuir monolayers of structurally different aminolipids are comprehensively characterized with the help of highly sensitive surface characterization techniques. Pressure-area isotherms, Brewster angle microscopy, grazing-incidence X-ray diffraction and infrared reflection-absorption spectrometry experiments provide a detailed, comparative molecular picture of the formed monolayers. This physico-chemical study highlights the relationship between chemical structures and intermolecular interactions, which can serve as a basis for the rational design of cross-linked thin films with precisely controlled properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Stefaniu
- Departments of Biomaterials and Biomolecular Systems, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces Am Mühlenberg 1 14476 Potsdam Germany
| | - Christian Wölk
- Institute of Pharmacy, Research Group Biochemical Pharmacy, Martin-Luther-University Wolfgang-Langenbeck-Strasse 4 06120 Halle (Saale) Germany
| | - Gerald Brezesinski
- Departments of Biomaterials and Biomolecular Systems, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces Am Mühlenberg 1 14476 Potsdam Germany
| | - Emanuel Schneck
- Departments of Biomaterials and Biomolecular Systems, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces Am Mühlenberg 1 14476 Potsdam Germany
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Janich C, Taßler S, Meister A, Hause G, Schäfer J, Bakowsky U, Brezesinski G, Wölk C. Structures of malonic acid diamide/phospholipid composites and their lipoplexes. SOFT MATTER 2016; 12:5854-66. [PMID: 27328379 DOI: 10.1039/c6sm00807k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
As a continuation of previous work, the self-assembly process of cationic lipid formulations in the presence and absence of DNA was investigated with respect to binary lipid mixtures suitable as polynucleotide carrier systems. The lipid blends consist of one malonic-acid-based cationic lipid with a varying alkyl chain pattern, either N-{6-amino-1-[N-(9Z)-octadec-9-enylamino]-1-oxohexan-(2S)-2-yl}-N'-{2-[N,N-bis(2-aminoethyl)amino]ethyl}-2-hexadecylpropandiamide () or N-[6-amino-1-oxo-1-(N-tetradecylamino)hexan-(2S)-2-yl]-N'-{2-[N,N-bis(2-aminoethyl)amino]ethyl}-2-hexadecylpropandiamide (), and one neutral co-lipid, either 1,2-di-[(9Z)-octadec-9-enoyl]-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DOPE) or 1,2-di-(hexadecanoyl)-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DPPC). Although the cationic lipids exhibit only slight differences in their structure, the DNA transfer efficiency varies drastically. Therefore, self-assembly was studied in 3D systems by small- and wide-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS and WAXS) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) as well as in 2D systems by infrared reflection-absorption spectroscopy (IRRAS) on Langmuir films. The investigated lipid mixtures show quite different self-assembly in the absence of DNA, with varying structures from vesicles (/DOPE; /DOPE) and tubes (/DOPE) to discoid structures (/DPPC; /DPPC). Twisted ribbons and sheets, which were stabilized due to hydrogen-bond networks, were found in all investigated lipid mixtures in the absence of DNA. The addition of DNA leads to the formation of lamellar lipoplexes for all the investigated lipid compositions. The lipoplexes differ in crucial parameters, such as the lamellar repeat distance and the spacing between the DNA strands, indicating differences in the binding strength between DNA and the lipid composition. The formation of associates with an ideal charge density might emerge as a key parameter for efficient DNA transfer. Furthermore, the structures observed for the different lipid compositions in the absence of DNA prepare the way for other applications besides gene therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Janich
- Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Institute of Pharmacy, Wolfgang-Langenbeck-Strasse 4, 06120 Halle, Saale, Germany. and Philipps University Marburg, Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biopharmacy, Ketzerbach 63, 35037 Marburg, Germany
| | - Stephanie Taßler
- Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Science Park Potsdam-Golm, Am Mühlenberg 1, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Annette Meister
- Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Institute of Chemistry, Physical Chemistry and Institute of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, von-Danckelmann-Platz 4, 06120 Halle, Saale, Germany
| | - Gerd Hause
- Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Biocenter, Weinbergweg 22, 06120 Halle, Saale, Germany
| | - Jens Schäfer
- Philipps University Marburg, Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biopharmacy, Ketzerbach 63, 35037 Marburg, Germany
| | - Udo Bakowsky
- Philipps University Marburg, Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biopharmacy, Ketzerbach 63, 35037 Marburg, Germany
| | - Gerald Brezesinski
- Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Science Park Potsdam-Golm, Am Mühlenberg 1, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Christian Wölk
- Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Institute of Pharmacy, Wolfgang-Langenbeck-Strasse 4, 06120 Halle, Saale, Germany.
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Gonawala S, Baydoun H, Wickramasinghe L, Verani CN. Efficient water oxidation with electromodified Langmuir–Blodgett films of procatalytic [CoIII(N2O3)] metallosurfactants on electrodes. Chem Commun (Camb) 2016; 52:8440-3. [DOI: 10.1039/c6cc03263j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Electromodified Langmuir–Blodgett films of a cobalt-based metallosurfactant support water oxidation at turnover numbers of up to 54 000 h−1.
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9
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Gonawala S, Leopoldino VR, Kpogo K, Verani CN. Langmuir–Blodgett films of salophen-based metallosurfactants as surface pretreatment coatings for corrosion mitigation. Chem Commun (Camb) 2016; 52:11155-8. [DOI: 10.1039/c6cc04563d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Langmuir–Blodgett films of metallosurfactants prevent up to 30% of acidic and saline corrosion, showing potential as surface pretreatment coatings.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Verônica R. Leopoldino
- Department of Chemistry
- Wayne State University
- USA
- Department of Chemical Engineering
- Universidade Federal de São João del Rei
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Vollhardt D. Phases and phase transition in insoluble and adsorbed monolayers of amide amphiphiles: Specific characteristics of the condensed phases. Adv Colloid Interface Sci 2015; 222:728-42. [PMID: 25129816 DOI: 10.1016/j.cis.2014.07.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2014] [Revised: 07/06/2014] [Accepted: 07/29/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
For understanding the role of amide containing amphiphiles in inherently complex biological processes, monolayers at the air-water interface are used as simple biomimetic model systems. The specific characteristics of the condensed phases and phase transition in insoluble and adsorbed monolayers of amide amphiphiles are surveyed to highlight the effect of the chemical structure of the amide amphiphiles on the interfacial interactions in model monolayers. The mesoscopic topography and/or two-dimensional lattice structures of selected amino acid amphiphiles, amphiphilic N-alkylaldonamide, amide amphiphiles with specific tailored headgroups, such as amide amphiphiles based on derivatized ethanolamine, e.g. acylethanolamines (NAEs) and N-,O-diacylethanolamines (DAEs) are presented. Special attention is devoted the dominance of N,O-diacylated ethanolamine in mixed amphiphilic acid amide monolayers. The evidence that a first order phase transition can occur in adsorption layers and that condensed phase domains of mesoscopic scale can be formed in adsorption layers was first obtained on the basis of the experimental characteristics of a tailored amide amphiphile. New thermodynamic and kinetic concepts for the theoretical description of the characteristics of amide amphiphile's monolayers were developed. In particular, the equation of state for Langmuir monolayers generalized for the case that one, two or more phase transitions occur, and the new theory for phase transition in adsorbed monolayers are experimentally confirmed at first by amide amphiphile monolayers. Despite the significant progress made towards the understanding the model systems, these model studies are still limited to transfer the gained knowledge to biological systems where the fundamental physical principles are operative in the same way. The study of biomimetic systems, as described in this review, is only a first step in this direction.
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11
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Wickramasinghe LD, Mazumder S, Gonawala S, Perera MM, Baydoun H, Thapa B, Li L, Xie L, Mao G, Zhou Z, Schlegel HB, Verani CN. The Mechanisms of Rectification in Au|Molecule|Au Devices Based on Langmuir-Blodgett Monolayers of Iron(III) and Copper(II) Surfactants. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2014; 53:14462-7. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.201408649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2014] [Revised: 09/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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12
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Wickramasinghe LD, Mazumder S, Gonawala S, Perera MM, Baydoun H, Thapa B, Li L, Xie L, Mao G, Zhou Z, Schlegel HB, Verani CN. The Mechanisms of Rectification in Au|Molecule|Au Devices Based on Langmuir-Blodgett Monolayers of Iron(III) and Copper(II) Surfactants. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2014. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201408649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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13
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Hasegawa T, Shimoaka T, Shioya N, Morita K, Sonoyama M, Takagi T, Kanamori T. Stratified Dipole-Arrays Model Accounting for Bulk Properties Specific to Perfluoroalkyl Compounds. Chempluschem 2014. [DOI: 10.1002/cplu.201402156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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14
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Stefaniu C, Brezesinski G. X-ray investigation of monolayers formed at the soft air/water interface. Curr Opin Colloid Interface Sci 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cocis.2014.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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15
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Wickramasinghe LD, Perera MM, Li L, Mao G, Zhou Z, Verani CN. Rectification in Nanoscale Devices Based on an Asymmetric Five-Coordinate Iron(III) Phenolate Complex. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2013. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201306765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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16
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Wickramasinghe LD, Perera MM, Li L, Mao G, Zhou Z, Verani CN. Rectification in Nanoscale Devices Based on an Asymmetric Five-Coordinate Iron(III) Phenolate Complex. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2013; 52:13346-50. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.201306765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2013] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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Dynarowicz-Łątka P, Wnętrzak A, Broniatowski M, Flasiński M. Miscibility and phase separation in mixed erucylphosphocholine–DPPC monolayers. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2013; 107:43-52. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2013.01.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2012] [Revised: 01/07/2013] [Accepted: 01/14/2013] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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Monolayers of novel Gemini amphiphiles with phthalimide headgroups at the air/water interface: pH and alkyl chain length effects. J Colloid Interface Sci 2013; 401:97-106. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2013.03.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2013] [Revised: 03/18/2013] [Accepted: 03/19/2013] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Verani CN, Shanmugam R, Xavier FR, Allard MM, Kpogo KK. Electronic and interfacial behavior of gemini metallosurfactants with copper(ii)/pseudohalide cascade cores. Dalton Trans 2013; 42:15296-306. [DOI: 10.1039/c3dt50788b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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20
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Brezesinski G, Berndt I, Dobner B, Vollhardt D. Dominance of long-chain N,O-diacylated ethanolamine in mixed amphiphilic acid amide monolayers. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfa.2011.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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