1
|
Sharma A, Chiang RA, Manginell M, Nardi I, Coker EN, Vanegas JM, Rempe SB, Bachand GD. Carbonic Anhydrase Robustness for Use in Nanoscale CO 2 Capture Technologies. ACS OMEGA 2023; 8:37830-37841. [PMID: 37867662 PMCID: PMC10586288 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.3c02630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2023] [Accepted: 09/08/2023] [Indexed: 10/24/2023]
Abstract
Continued dependence on crude oil and natural gas resources for fossil fuels has caused global atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions to increase to record-setting proportions. There is an urgent need for efficient and inexpensive carbon sequestration systems to mitigate large-scale emissions of CO2 from industrial flue gas. Carbonic anhydrase (CA) has shown high potential for enhanced CO2 capture applications compared to conventional absorption-based methods currently utilized in various industrial settings. This study aims to understand structural aspects that contribute to the stability of CA enzymes critical for their applications in industrial processes, which require the ability to withstand conditions different from those in their native environments. Here, we evaluated the thermostability and enzyme activity of mesophilic and thermophilic CA variants at different temperature conditions and in the presence of atmospheric gas pollutants like nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides. Based on our enzyme activity assays and molecular dynamics simulations, we see increased conformational stability and CA activity levels in thermostable CA variants incubated week-long at different temperature conditions. The thermostable CA variants also retained high levels of CA activity despite changes in solution pH due to increasing NO and SO2 concentrations. A loss of CA activity was observed only at high concentrations of NO/SO2 that possibly can be minimized with the appropriate buffered solutions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Arjun Sharma
- Department
of Physics, The University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont 05405-0160, United
States
| | - Rong-an Chiang
- Memzyme,
LLC, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87123, United States
| | - Monica Manginell
- Center
for Integrated Nanotechnologies, Sandia
National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87185, United States
| | - Isaac Nardi
- Epigentor
Consultants, Inc., Miami, Florida 87185, United States
| | - Eric N. Coker
- Electronic,
Optical, and Nanomaterials Department, Sandia
National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87185, United States
| | - Juan M. Vanegas
- Department
of Physics, The University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont 05405-0160, United
States
| | - Susan B. Rempe
- Center
for Integrated Nanotechnologies, Sandia
National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87185, United States
| | - George D. Bachand
- Center
for Integrated Nanotechnologies, Sandia
National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87185, United States
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Zhang Q, Xuan Q, Wang C, Shi C, Wang X, Ma T, Zhang W, Li H, Wang P, Chen C. Bioengineered "Molecular Glue"-Mediated Tumor-Specific Cascade Nanoreactors with Self-Destruction Ability for Enhanced Precise Starvation/Chemosynergistic Tumor Therapy. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2023; 15:41271-41286. [PMID: 37622208 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.3c06871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/26/2023]
Abstract
The ordered and directed functionalization of targeting elements on the surface of nanomaterials for precise tumor therapy remains a challenge. To address the above problem, herein, we adopted a materials-based synthetic biotechnology strategy to fabricate a bioengineered fusion protein of materials-binding peptides and targeting elements, which can serve as a "molecular glue" to achieve a directional and organized assembly of targeting biological macromolecules on the surface of nanocarriers. The hypoxia microenvironment of solid tumors inspired the rapid development of starvation/chemosynergistic therapy; however, the unsatisfied spatiotemporal specific performance hindered its further development in precise tumor therapy. As a proof of concept, a bioengineered fusion protein containing a dendritic mesoporous silicon (DMSN)-binding peptide, and a tumor-targeted and acidity-decomposable ferritin heavy chain 1 (FTH1), was constructed by fusion expression and further assembled on the surface of DMSN companying with the insertion of hypoxia-activated prodrug tirapazamine (TPZ) and glucose oxidase (GOX) to establish a nanoreactor for precise starvation/chemosynergistic tumor therapy. In this context, the as-prepared therapeutic nanoreactors revealed obvious tumor-specific accumulation and an endocytosis effect. Next, the acidic tumor microenvironment triggered the structural collapse of FTH1 and the subsequent release of GOX and TPZ, in which GOX-mediated catalysis cut off the nutrition supply to realize starvation therapy based on the consumption of endogenous glucose and further provided an exacerbated hypoxia environment for TPZ in situ activation to initiate tumor chemotherapy. More significantly, the presence of "molecular glue" elevated the tumor-targeting capacity of nanoreactors and further enhanced the starvation/chemosynergistic therapeutic effect remarkably, suggesting that such a strategy provided a solution for the functionality of nanomaterials and facilitated the design of novel targeting nanomedicines. Overall, this study highlights materials-binding peptides as a new type of "molecular glue" and opens new avenues for designing and exploring active biological materials for biological functions and applications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Qi Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, Biomedical Nanotechnology Centre, School of Biotechnology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, People's Republic of China
| | - Qize Xuan
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, Biomedical Nanotechnology Centre, School of Biotechnology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, People's Republic of China
| | - Chen Wang
- Institute for Environmental Pollution and Health, School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, People's Republic of China
| | - Chongli Shi
- Institute for Environmental Pollution and Health, School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaoli Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, Biomedical Nanotechnology Centre, School of Biotechnology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, People's Republic of China
| | - Tonghao Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, Biomedical Nanotechnology Centre, School of Biotechnology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, People's Republic of China
| | - Wei Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, Biomedical Nanotechnology Centre, School of Biotechnology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, People's Republic of China
| | - Hui Li
- Institute for Environmental Pollution and Health, School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, People's Republic of China
| | - Ping Wang
- Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems Engineering, University of Minnesota, St Paul, Minnesota 55108, United States
| | - Chao Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, Biomedical Nanotechnology Centre, School of Biotechnology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, People's Republic of China
- Institute for Environmental Pollution and Health, School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, People's Republic of China
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Ali J, Faridi S, Sardar M. Carbonic anhydrase as a tool to mitigate global warming. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:83093-83112. [PMID: 37336857 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-28122-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2022] [Accepted: 06/01/2023] [Indexed: 06/21/2023]
Abstract
The global average temperature breaks the record every year, and this unprecedented speed at which it is unfolding is causing serious climate change which in turn impacts the lives of humans and other living organisms. Thus, it is imperative to take immediate action to limit global warming. Increased CO2 emission from the industrial sector that relies on fossil fuels is the major culprit. Mitigating global warming is an uphill battle that involves an integration of technologies such as switching to renewable energy, increasing the carbon sink capacity, and implementing carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) on major sources of CO2 emissions. Among all these methods, CCS is globally accepted as a potential technology to address this climate change. CCS using carbonic anhydrase (CA) is gaining momentum due to its advantages over other conventional CCS technologies. CA is a metalloenzyme that catalyses a fundamental reaction for life, i.e. the interconversion of bicarbonate and protons from carbon dioxide and water. The practical application of CA requires stable CAs operating under harsh operational conditions. CAs from extremophilic microbes are the potential candidates for the sequestration of CO2 and conversion into useful by-products. The soluble free form of CA is expensive, unstable, and non-reusable in an industrial setup. Immobilization of CA on various support materials can provide a better alternative for application in the sequestration of CO2. The present review provides insight into several types of CAs, their distinctive characteristics, sources, and recent developments in CA immobilization strategies for application in CO2 sequestration.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Juned Ali
- Enzyme Technology Lab, Department of Biosciences, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, 110025, India
| | - Shazia Faridi
- Enzyme Technology Lab, Department of Biosciences, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, 110025, India
| | - Meryam Sardar
- Enzyme Technology Lab, Department of Biosciences, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, 110025, India.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Yuan Y, Shen J, Salmon S. Developing Enzyme Immobilization with Fibrous Membranes: Longevity and Characterization Considerations. MEMBRANES 2023; 13:membranes13050532. [PMID: 37233593 DOI: 10.3390/membranes13050532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2023] [Revised: 04/14/2023] [Accepted: 05/10/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Fibrous membranes offer broad opportunities to deploy immobilized enzymes in new reactor and application designs, including multiphase continuous flow-through reactions. Enzyme immobilization is a technology strategy that simplifies the separation of otherwise soluble catalytic proteins from liquid reaction media and imparts stabilization and performance enhancement. Flexible immobilization matrices made from fibers have versatile physical attributes, such as high surface area, light weight, and controllable porosity, which give them membrane-like characteristics, while simultaneously providing good mechanical properties for creating functional filters, sensors, scaffolds, and other interface-active biocatalytic materials. This review examines immobilization strategies for enzymes on fibrous membrane-like polymeric supports involving all three fundamental mechanisms of post-immobilization, incorporation, and coating. Post-immobilization offers an infinite selection of matrix materials, but may encounter loading and durability issues, while incorporation offers longevity but has more limited material options and may present mass transfer obstacles. Coating techniques on fibrous materials at different geometric scales are a growing trend in making membranes that integrate biocatalytic functionality with versatile physical supports. Biocatalytic performance parameters and characterization techniques for immobilized enzymes are described, including several emerging techniques of special relevance for fibrous immobilized enzymes. Diverse application examples from the literature, focusing on fibrous matrices, are summarized, and biocatalyst longevity is emphasized as a critical performance parameter that needs increased attention to advance concepts from lab scale to broader utilization. This consolidation of fabrication, performance measurement, and characterization techniques, with guiding examples highlighted, is intended to inspire future innovations in enzyme immobilization with fibrous membranes and expand their uses in novel reactors and processes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yue Yuan
- Center for Nanophase Materials and Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA
- Fiber and Polymer Science Program, Department of Textile Engineering Chemistry & Science, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
| | - Jialong Shen
- Fiber and Polymer Science Program, Department of Textile Engineering Chemistry & Science, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
| | - Sonja Salmon
- Fiber and Polymer Science Program, Department of Textile Engineering Chemistry & Science, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Engineering and linker-mediated co-immobilization of carotenoid cleavage oxygenase with phenolic acid decarboxylase for efficiently converting ferulic acid into vanillin. Process Biochem 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.procbio.2022.08.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
|
6
|
Rasouli H, Nguyen K, Iliuta MC. Recent advancements in carbonic anhydrase immobilization and its implementation in CO2 capture technologies: A review. Sep Purif Technol 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.seppur.2022.121299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
|
7
|
Wang X, Zhang Z, Liu Z, Ma X, Dai Q, Wang X, Ge B, He H, Huang F. Spectroscopic investigation on the binding interactions between graphene quantum dots and carbonic anhydrase. SPECTROCHIMICA ACTA. PART A, MOLECULAR AND BIOMOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY 2022; 265:120369. [PMID: 34547684 DOI: 10.1016/j.saa.2021.120369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2021] [Revised: 08/28/2021] [Accepted: 09/04/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
As a new member of the nanomaterials family, ultrasmall graphene quantum dots (GQDs) have shown broad application prospects in the field of biomedicine, but the analysis of their biological effects at the molecular level is yet limited. Herein, carbonic anhydrase (CA) was selected as a model protein to assess the interactions between GQDs and biomacromolecules. A range of spectroscopic techniques were employed to systematically investigate the binding interactions between GQDs and CA and the catalytic function of CA in the presence of GQDs was evaluated. Experimental results showed that GQDs could quench the intrinsic fluorescence of CA and the concentration dependent quenching efficiency exhibited an obvious deviation from the linear plot, indicating a static binding mode. Further investigation suggested that van der Waal interactions and hydrogen bonding were the main driving forces. Additionally, circular dichroism measurement showed that the binding of GQDs induced slight conformational changes of CA. The catalytic capability assessment proved that these binding interactions resulted in the reduction of the biological functions of CA. This comprehensive study provided important insight into the interaction of GQDs with biomacromolecules, which would be crucial for the further applications of GQDs and other nanomaterials in the biomedical field.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaojuan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Heavy Oil Processing, College of Chemical Engineering, China University of Petroleum (East China), Qingdao 266580, China.
| | - Zhixiong Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Heavy Oil Processing, College of Chemical Engineering, China University of Petroleum (East China), Qingdao 266580, China
| | - Zhenzhen Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Heavy Oil Processing, College of Chemical Engineering, China University of Petroleum (East China), Qingdao 266580, China
| | - Xiqi Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Heavy Oil Processing, College of Chemical Engineering, China University of Petroleum (East China), Qingdao 266580, China
| | - Qi Dai
- State Key Laboratory of Heavy Oil Processing, College of Chemical Engineering, China University of Petroleum (East China), Qingdao 266580, China
| | - Xiaoqiang Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Heavy Oil Processing, College of Chemical Engineering, China University of Petroleum (East China), Qingdao 266580, China
| | - Baosheng Ge
- State Key Laboratory of Heavy Oil Processing, College of Chemical Engineering, China University of Petroleum (East China), Qingdao 266580, China
| | - Hua He
- State Key Laboratory of Heavy Oil Processing, College of Chemical Engineering, China University of Petroleum (East China), Qingdao 266580, China
| | - Fang Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Heavy Oil Processing, College of Chemical Engineering, China University of Petroleum (East China), Qingdao 266580, China.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Zhu J, Avakyan N, Kakkis AA, Hoffnagle AM, Han K, Li Y, Zhang Z, Choi TS, Na Y, Yu CJ, Tezcan FA. Protein Assembly by Design. Chem Rev 2021; 121:13701-13796. [PMID: 34405992 PMCID: PMC9148388 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c00308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Proteins are nature's primary building blocks for the construction of sophisticated molecular machines and dynamic materials, ranging from protein complexes such as photosystem II and nitrogenase that drive biogeochemical cycles to cytoskeletal assemblies and muscle fibers for motion. Such natural systems have inspired extensive efforts in the rational design of artificial protein assemblies in the last two decades. As molecular building blocks, proteins are highly complex, in terms of both their three-dimensional structures and chemical compositions. To enable control over the self-assembly of such complex molecules, scientists have devised many creative strategies by combining tools and principles of experimental and computational biophysics, supramolecular chemistry, inorganic chemistry, materials science, and polymer chemistry, among others. Owing to these innovative strategies, what started as a purely structure-building exercise two decades ago has, in short order, led to artificial protein assemblies with unprecedented structures and functions and protein-based materials with unusual properties. Our goal in this review is to give an overview of this exciting and highly interdisciplinary area of research, first outlining the design strategies and tools that have been devised for controlling protein self-assembly, then describing the diverse structures of artificial protein assemblies, and finally highlighting the emergent properties and functions of these assemblies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Albert A. Kakkis
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093-0340, United States
| | - Alexander M. Hoffnagle
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093-0340, United States
| | - Kenneth Han
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093-0340, United States
| | - Yiying Li
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093-0340, United States
| | - Zhiyin Zhang
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093-0340, United States
| | - Tae Su Choi
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093-0340, United States
| | - Youjeong Na
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093-0340, United States
| | - Chung-Jui Yu
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093-0340, United States
| | - F. Akif Tezcan
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, California 92093-0340, United States
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Dong H, Zhang W, Zhou S, Huang J, Wang P. Engineering bioscaffolds for enzyme assembly. Biotechnol Adv 2021; 53:107721. [PMID: 33631185 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2021.107721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2020] [Revised: 02/04/2021] [Accepted: 02/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
With the demand for green, safe, and continuous biocatalysis, bioscaffolds, compared with synthetic scaffolds, have become a desirable candidate for constructing enzyme assemblages because of their biocompatibility and regenerability. Biocompatibility makes bioscaffolds more suitable for safe and green production, especially in food processing, production of bioactive agents, and diagnosis. The regenerability can enable the engineered biocatalysts regenerate through simple self-proliferation without complex re-modification, which is attractive for continuous biocatalytic processes. In view of the unique biocompatibility and regenerability of bioscaffolds, they can be classified into non-living (polysaccharide, nucleic acid, and protein) and living (virus, bacteria, fungi, spore, and biofilm) bioscaffolds, which can fully satisfy these two unique properties, respectively. Enzymes assembled onto non-living bioscaffolds are based on single or complex components, while enzymes assembled onto living bioscaffolds are based on living bodies. In terms of their unique biocompatibility and regenerability, this review mainly covers the current advances in the research and application of non-living and living bioscaffolds with focus on engineering strategies for enzyme assembly. Finally, the future development of bioscaffolds for enzyme assembly is also discussed. Hopefully, this review will attract the interest of researchers in various fields and empower the development of biocatalysis, biomedicine, environmental remediation, therapy, and diagnosis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hao Dong
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, School of Biotechnology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Wenxue Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, School of Biotechnology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Shengmin Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, School of Biotechnology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Jiaofang Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, School of Biotechnology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China.
| | - Ping Wang
- Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems Engineering, University of Minnesota, St Paul, MN 55108, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Ren S, Jiang S, Yan X, Chen R, Cui H. Challenges and Opportunities: Porous Supports in Carbonic Anhydrase Immobilization. J CO2 UTIL 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcou.2020.101305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
|
11
|
Wu Z, Nan Y, Zhao Y, Wang X, Huang S, Shi J. Immobilization of carbonic anhydrase for facilitated CO2 capture and separation. Chin J Chem Eng 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cjche.2020.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
|
12
|
Park SJ. Protein-Nanoparticle Interaction: Corona Formation and Conformational Changes in Proteins on Nanoparticles. Int J Nanomedicine 2020; 15:5783-5802. [PMID: 32821101 PMCID: PMC7418457 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s254808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2020] [Accepted: 05/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Nanoparticles (NPs) are highly potent tools for the diagnosis of diseases and specific delivery of therapeutic agents. Their development and application are scientifically and industrially important. The engineering of NPs and the modulation of their in vivo behavior have been extensively studied, and significant achievements have been made in the past decades. However, in vivo applications of NPs are often limited by several difficulties, including inflammatory responses and cellular toxicity, unexpected distribution and clearance from the body, and insufficient delivery to a specific target. These unfavorable phenomena may largely be related to the in vivo protein-NP interaction, termed "protein corona." The layer of adsorbed proteins on the surface of NPs affects the biological behavior of NPs and changes their functionality, occasionally resulting in loss-of-function or gain-of-function. The formation of a protein corona is an intricate process involving complex kinetics and dynamics between the two interacting entities. Structural changes in corona proteins have been reported in many cases after their adsorption on the surfaces of NPs that strongly influence the functions of NPs. Thus, understanding of the conformational changes and unfolding process of proteins is very important to accelerate the biomedical applications of NPs. Here, we describe several protein corona characteristics and specifically focus on the conformational fluctuations in corona proteins induced by NPs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sung Jean Park
- College of Pharmacy and Gachon Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Gachon University, Incheon21936, Korea
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Yoshimoto M, Walde P. Immobilized carbonic anhydrase: preparation, characteristics and biotechnological applications. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 2018; 34:151. [PMID: 30259182 DOI: 10.1007/s11274-018-2536-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2018] [Accepted: 09/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Carbonic anhydrase (CA) is an essential metalloenzyme in living systems for accelerating the hydration and dehydration of carbon dioxide. CA-catalyzed reactions can be applied in vitro for capturing industrially emitted gaseous carbon dioxide in aqueous solutions. To facilitate this type of practical application, the immobilization of CA on or inside solid or soft support materials is of great importance because the immobilization of enzymes in general offers the opportunity for enzyme recycling or long-term use in bioreactors. Moreover, the thermal/storage stability and reactivity of immobilized CA can be modulated through the physicochemical nature and structural characteristics of the support material used. This review focuses on (i) immobilization methods which have been applied so far, (ii) some of the characteristic features of immobilized forms of CA, and (iii) biotechnological applications of immobilized CA. The applications described not only include the CA-assisted capturing and sequestration of carbon dioxide, but also the CA-supported bioelectrochemical conversion of CO2 into organic molecules, and the detection of clinically important CA inhibitors. Furthermore, immobilized CA can be used in biomimetic materials synthesis involving cascade reactions, e.g. for bone regeneration based on calcium carbonate formation from urea with two consecutive reactions catalyzed by urease and CA.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Makoto Yoshimoto
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Yamaguchi University, Tokiwadai 2-16-1, Ube, 755-8611, Japan.
| | - Peter Walde
- Department of Materials, ETH Zürich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 5, 8093, Zurich, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Chen G, Xu W, Lu D, Wu J, Liu Z. Markov-state model for CO 2 binding with carbonic anhydrase under confinement. J Chem Phys 2018; 148:035101. [PMID: 29352785 DOI: 10.1063/1.5003298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Enzyme immobilization with a nanostructure material can enhance its stability and facilitate reusability. However, the apparent activity is often compromised due to additional diffusion barriers and complex interactions with the substrates and solvent molecules. The present study elucidates the effects of the surface hydrophobicity of nano-confinement on CO2 diffusion to the active site of human carbonic anhydrase II (CA), an enzyme that is able to catalyze CO2 hydration at extremely high turnover rates. Using the Markov-state model in combination with coarse-grained molecular dynamics simulations, we demonstrate that a hydrophobic cage increases CO2 local density but hinders its diffusion towards the active site of CA under confinement. By contrast, a hydrophilic cage hinders CO2 adsorption but promotes its binding with CA. An optimal surface hydrophobicity can be identified to maximize both the CO2 occupation probability and the diffusion rate. The simulation results offer insight into understanding enzyme performance under nano-confinement and help us to advance broader applications of CA for CO2 absorption and recovery.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gong Chen
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Industrial Biocatalysis, Department of Chemical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Weina Xu
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Industrial Biocatalysis, Department of Chemical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Diannan Lu
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Industrial Biocatalysis, Department of Chemical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Jianzhong Wu
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, USA
| | - Zheng Liu
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Industrial Biocatalysis, Department of Chemical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Chen G, Kong X, Lu D, Wu J, Liu Z. Kinetics of CO 2 diffusion in human carbonic anhydrase: a study using molecular dynamics simulations and the Markov-state model. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2018; 19:11690-11697. [PMID: 28435964 DOI: 10.1039/c7cp00887b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, in combination with the Markov-state model (MSM), were applied to probe CO2 diffusion from an aqueous solution into the active site of human carbonic anhydrase II (hCA-II), an enzyme useful for enhanced CO2 capture and utilization. The diffusion process in the hydrophobic pocket of hCA-II was illustrated in terms of a two-dimensional free-energy landscape. We found that CO2 diffusion in hCA-II is a rate-limiting step in the CO2 diffusion-binding-reaction process. The equilibrium distribution of CO2 shows its preferential accumulation within a hydrophobic domain in the protein core region. An analysis of the committors and reactive fluxes indicates that the main pathway for CO2 diffusion into the active site of hCA-II is through a binding pocket where residue Gln136 contributes to the maximal flux. The simulation results offer a new perspective on the CO2 hydration kinetics and useful insights toward the development of novel biochemical processes for more efficient CO2 sequestration and utilization.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gong Chen
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Biocatalysis, Ministry of Education, China.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
Faccio G. From Protein Features to Sensing Surfaces. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2018; 18:E1204. [PMID: 29662030 PMCID: PMC5948494 DOI: 10.3390/s18041204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2018] [Revised: 04/08/2018] [Accepted: 04/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Proteins play a major role in biosensors in which they provide catalytic activity and specificity in molecular recognition. However, the immobilization process is far from straightforward as it often affects the protein functionality. Extensive interaction of the protein with the surface or significant surface crowding can lead to changes in the mobility and conformation of the protein structure. This review will provide insights as to how an analysis of the physico-chemical features of the protein surface before the immobilization process can help to identify the optimal immobilization approach. Such an analysis can help to preserve the functionality of the protein when on a biosensor surface.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Greta Faccio
- Independent Scientist, St. Gallen 9000, Switzerland.
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Yu H, Chen C, Cao X, Liu Y, Zhou S, Wang P. Ratiometric fluorescent pH nanoprobes based on in situ assembling of fluorescence resonance energy transfer between fluorescent proteins. Anal Bioanal Chem 2017; 409:5073-5080. [PMID: 28687887 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-017-0453-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2017] [Revised: 05/23/2017] [Accepted: 06/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
pH-dependent protein adsorption on mesoporous silica nanoparticle (MSN) was examined as a unique means for pH monitoring. Assuming that the degree of protein adsorption determines the distance separating protein molecules, we examined the feasibility of nanoscale pH probes based on fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) between two fluorescent proteins (mTurquoise2 and mNeonGreen, as donor and acceptor, respectively). Since protein adsorption on MSN is pH-sensitive, both fluorescent proteins were modified to make their isoelectric points (pIs) identical, thus achieving comparable adsorption between the proteins and enhancing FRET signals. The adsorption behaviors of such modified fluorescent proteins were examined along with ratiometric FRET signal generation. Results demonstrated that the pH probes could be manipulated to show feasible sensitivity and selectivity for pH changes in hosting solutions, with a good linearity observed in the pH range of 5.5-8.0. In a demonstration test, the pH probes were successfully applied to monitor progress of enzymatic reactions. Such an "in situ-assembling" pH sensor demonstrates a promising strategy in developing nanoscale fluorescent protein probes. Graphical abstract Working principle of the developed pH sensor TNS; and FRET Ratio (I528/I460) as a function of pH under different protein feed ratios (mNeonGreen to mTurquoise2).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Haijun Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, Biomedical Nanotechnology Center, School of Biotechnology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, China
| | - Chao Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, Biomedical Nanotechnology Center, School of Biotechnology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, China
| | - Xiaodan Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, Biomedical Nanotechnology Center, School of Biotechnology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, China
| | - Yueling Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, Biomedical Nanotechnology Center, School of Biotechnology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, China
| | - Shengmin Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, Biomedical Nanotechnology Center, School of Biotechnology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, China.
| | - Ping Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, Biomedical Nanotechnology Center, School of Biotechnology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, China.
- Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems Engineering, University of Minnesota, St Paul, MN, 55108, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Botta L, Bizzarri BM, Crucianelli M, Saladino R. Advances in biotechnological synthetic applications of carbon nanostructured systems. J Mater Chem B 2017; 5:6490-6510. [PMID: 32264413 DOI: 10.1039/c7tb00764g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
In the last few years carbon nanostructures have been applied for the immobilization of enzymes and biomimetic organo-metallic species useful for biotechnological applications. The nature of the support and the method of immobilization are responsible for the stability, reactivity and selectivity of the system. In this review, we focus on the recent advances in the use of carbon nanostructures, carbon nanotubes, carbon nanorods, fullerene and graphene for the preparation of biocatalytic and biomimetic systems and for their application in the development of green chemical processes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lorenzo Botta
- Department of Biological and Ecological Sciences (DEB), University of Tuscia, Via S. Camillo de Lellis snc, 01100 Viterbo, Italy.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
19
|
Antonucci A, Kupis-Rozmysłowicz J, Boghossian AA. Noncovalent Protein and Peptide Functionalization of Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes for Biodelivery and Optical Sensing Applications. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2017; 9:11321-11331. [PMID: 28299937 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.7b00810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
The exquisite structural and optical characteristics of single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs), combined with the tunable specificities of proteins and peptides, can be exploited to strongly benefit technologies with applications in fields ranging from biomedicine to industrial biocatalysis. The key to exploiting the synergism of these materials is designing protein/peptide-SWCNT conjugation schemes that preserve biomolecule activity while keeping the near-infrared optical and electronic properties of SWCNTs intact. Since sp2 bond-breaking disrupts the optoelectronic properties of SWCNTs, noncovalent conjugation strategies are needed to interface biomolecules to the nanotube surface for optical biosensing and delivery applications. An underlying understanding of the forces contributing to protein and peptide interaction with the nanotube is thus necessary to identify the appropriate conjugation design rules for specific applications. This article explores the molecular interactions that govern the adsorption of peptides and proteins on SWCNT surfaces, elucidating contributions from individual amino acids as well as secondary and tertiary protein structure and conformation. Various noncovalent conjugation strategies for immobilizing peptides, homopolypeptides, and soluble and membrane proteins on SWCNT surfaces are presented, highlighting studies focused on developing near-infrared optical sensors and molecular scaffolds for self-assembly and biochemical analysis. The analysis presented herein suggests that though direct adsorption of proteins and peptides onto SWCNTs can be principally applied to drug and gene delivery, in vivo imaging and targeting, or cancer therapy, nondirect conjugation strategies using artificial or natural membranes, polymers, or linker molecules are often better suited for biosensing applications that require conservation of biomolecular functionality or precise control of the biomolecule's orientation. These design rules are intended to provide the reader with a rational approach to engineering biomolecule-SWCNT platforms, broadening the breadth and accessibility of both wild-type and engineered biomolecules for SWCNT-based applications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Antonucci
- Institute of Chemical Sciences and Engineering (ISIC), École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) , 1015-Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Justyna Kupis-Rozmysłowicz
- Institute of Chemical Sciences and Engineering (ISIC), École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) , 1015-Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Ardemis A Boghossian
- Institute of Chemical Sciences and Engineering (ISIC), École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) , 1015-Lausanne, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Care A, Petroll K, Gibson ESY, Bergquist PL, Sunna A. Solid-binding peptides for immobilisation of thermostable enzymes to hydrolyse biomass polysaccharides. BIOTECHNOLOGY FOR BIOFUELS 2017; 10:29. [PMID: 28184244 PMCID: PMC5289021 DOI: 10.1186/s13068-017-0715-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2016] [Accepted: 01/19/2017] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Solid-binding peptides (SBPs) bind strongly to a diverse range of solid materials without the need for any chemical reactions. They have been used mainly for the functionalisation of nanomaterials but little is known about their use for the immobilisation of thermostable enzymes and their feasibility in industrial-scale biocatalysis. RESULTS A silica-binding SBP sequence was fused genetically to three thermostable hemicellulases. The resulting enzymes were active after fusion and exhibited identical pH and temperature optima but differing thermostabilities when compared to their corresponding unmodified enzymes. The silica-binding peptide mediated the efficient immobilisation of each enzyme onto zeolite, demonstrating the construction of single enzyme biocatalytic modules. Cross-linked enzyme aggregates (CLEAs) of enzyme preparations either with or without zeolite immobilisation displayed greater activity retention during enzyme recycling than those of free enzymes (without silica-binding peptide) or zeolite-bound enzymes without any crosslinking. CLEA preparations comprising all three enzymes simultaneously immobilised onto zeolite enabled the formation of multiple enzyme biocatalytic modules which were shown to degrade several hemicellulosic substrates. CONCLUSIONS The current work introduced the construction of functional biocatalytic modules for the hydrolysis of simple and complex polysaccharides. This technology exploited a silica-binding SBP to mediate effectively the rapid and simple immobilisation of thermostable enzymes onto readily-available and inexpensive silica-based matrices. A conceptual application of biocatalytic modules consisting of single or multiple enzymes was validated by hydrolysing various hemicellulosic polysaccharides.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Care
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Nanoscale BioPhotonics (CNBP), Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia
| | - Kerstin Petroll
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia
| | - Emily S. Y. Gibson
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia
| | - Peter L. Bergquist
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia
- Department of Molecular Medicine & Pathology, Medical School, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
- Biomolecular Discovery and Design Research Centre, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia
| | - Anwar Sunna
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia
- Biomolecular Discovery and Design Research Centre, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Yu X, Wang Z, Su Z, Wei G. Design, fabrication, and biomedical applications of bioinspired peptide–inorganic nanomaterial hybrids. J Mater Chem B 2017; 5:1130-1142. [DOI: 10.1039/c6tb02659a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
We presented the design, composition, and typical biomedical applications of bioinspired peptide–inorganic nanomaterial hybrids.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoqing Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering
- Beijing University of Chemical Technology
- 100029 Beijing
- China
| | - Zhenping Wang
- Faculty of Production Engineering
- University of Bremen
- D-28359 Bremen
- Germany
| | - Zhiqiang Su
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering
- Beijing University of Chemical Technology
- 100029 Beijing
- China
| | - Gang Wei
- Faculty of Production Engineering
- University of Bremen
- D-28359 Bremen
- Germany
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Park J, Hwang ET, Seo BK, Gu MB. Continuous Modular Biomimetic Utilization of Carbon Dioxide toward Multi- and Chemoenzymatic Systems. ACS Catal 2016. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.6b01798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jieun Park
- Department
of Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Korea University, Anam-dong,
Seongbuk-gu, 136-701 Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Ee Taek Hwang
- School
of Biomedical Sciences and the Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular
Biology, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom
| | - Bo-Kuk Seo
- Department
of Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Korea University, Anam-dong,
Seongbuk-gu, 136-701 Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Man Bock Gu
- Department
of Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Korea University, Anam-dong,
Seongbuk-gu, 136-701 Seoul, Republic of Korea
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Zare-Eelanjegh E, Bora DK, Rupper P, Schrantz K, Thöny-Meyer L, Maniura-Weber K, Richter M, Faccio G. Affinity-Driven Immobilization of Proteins to Hematite Nanoparticles. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2016; 8:20432-20439. [PMID: 27429157 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.6b03284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Functional nanoparticles are valuable materials for energy production, bioelectronics, and diagnostic devices. The combination of biomolecules with nanosized material produces a new hybrid material with properties that can exceed the ones of the single components. Hematite is a widely available material that has found application in various sectors such as in sensing and solar energy production. We report a single-step immobilization process based on affinity and achieved by genetically engineering the protein of interest to carry a hematite-binding peptide. Fabricated hematite nanoparticles were then investigated for the immobilization of the two biomolecules C-phycocyanin (CPC) and laccase from Bacillus pumilus (LACC) under mild conditions. Genetic engineering of biomolecules with a hematite-affinity peptide led to a higher extent of protein immobilization and enhanced the catalytic activity of the enzyme.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elaheh Zare-Eelanjegh
- Laboratory for Biointerfaces, Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology , Lerchenfeldstrasse 5, 9014 St. Gallen, Switzerland
| | - Debajeet K Bora
- Laboratory for High Performance Ceramics, Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology , Überlandstrasse 129, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Patrick Rupper
- Laboratory for Advanced Fibers, Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology , Lerchenfeldstrasse 5, 9014 St. Gallen, Switzerland
| | - Krisztina Schrantz
- Laboratory for High Performance Ceramics, Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology , Überlandstrasse 129, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Linda Thöny-Meyer
- Laboratory for Biointerfaces, Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology , Lerchenfeldstrasse 5, 9014 St. Gallen, Switzerland
| | - Katharina Maniura-Weber
- Laboratory for Biointerfaces, Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology , Lerchenfeldstrasse 5, 9014 St. Gallen, Switzerland
| | - Michael Richter
- Laboratory for Biointerfaces, Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology , Lerchenfeldstrasse 5, 9014 St. Gallen, Switzerland
| | - Greta Faccio
- Laboratory for Biointerfaces, Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology , Lerchenfeldstrasse 5, 9014 St. Gallen, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Li Z, Guan W, Lu C, Zhou XR, Luo SZ, You Y, Ouyang J. Hydrophobicity-induced prestaining for protein detection in polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Chem Commun (Camb) 2016; 52:2807-10. [DOI: 10.1039/c5cc09377e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
An aggregation-induced emission fluorescent surfactant has been used to prestain protein by means of strong hydrophobic interaction between fluorescent surfactants and proteins.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zhe Li
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering
- Beijing University of Chemical Technology
- Beijing 100029
- China
| | - Weijiang Guan
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering
- Beijing University of Chemical Technology
- Beijing 100029
- China
| | - Chao Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering
- Beijing University of Chemical Technology
- Beijing 100029
- China
| | - Xi-Rui Zhou
- College of Life Science and Technology
- Beijing University of Chemical Technology
- Beijing 100029
- China
| | - Shi-Zhong Luo
- College of Life Science and Technology
- Beijing University of Chemical Technology
- Beijing 100029
- China
| | - Ying You
- College of Chemistry
- Beijing Normal University
- Beijing 100875
- China
| | - Jin Ouyang
- College of Chemistry
- Beijing Normal University
- Beijing 100875
- China
| |
Collapse
|