An in situ study of the adsorption behavior of functionalized particles on self-assembled monolayers via different chemical interactions

Recent Advances in the Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Applications of Cyclodextrin-Capped Gold Nanoparticles

The real problem in pharmaceutical preparation is drugs' poor aqueous solubility, low permeability through biological membranes, and short biological t_1/2. Conventional drug delivery systems are not able to overcome these problems. However, cyclodextrins (CDs) and their derivatives can solve these challenges. This article aims to summarize and review the history, properties, and different applications of cyclodextrins, especially the ability of inclusion complex formation. It also refers to the effects of cyclodextrin on drug solubility, bioavailability, and stability. Moreover, it focuses on preparing and applying gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) as novel drug delivery systems. It also studies the uses and effects of cyclodextrins in this field as novel drug carriers and targeting devices. The system formulated from AuNPs linked with CD molecules combines the advantages of both CD and AuNPs. Cyclodextrins benefit in increasing aqueous drug solubility, loading capacity, stability, and size control of gold NPs. Also, AuNPs are applied as diagnostic and therapeutic agents because of their unique chemical properties. Plus, AuNPs possess several advantages such as ease of detection, targeted and selective drug delivery, greater surface area, high loading efficiency, and higher stability than microparticles. In the present article, we tried to present the potential pharmaceutical applications of CD-derived AuNPs in biomedical applications including antibacterial, anticancer, gene-drug delivery, and various targeted drug delivery applications. Also, the article highlighted the role of CDs in the preparation and improvement of catalytic enzymes, the formation of self-assembling molecular print boards, the fabrication of supramolecular functionalized electrodes, and biosensors formation.

Pattern detection in colloidal assembly: A mosaic of analysis techniques

Characterization of the morphology, identification of patterns and quantification of order encountered in colloidal assemblies is essential for several reasons. First of all, it is useful to compare different self-assembly methods and assess the influence of different process parameters on the final colloidal pattern. In addition, casting light on the structures formed by colloidal particles can help to get better insight into colloidal interactions and understand phase transitions. Finally, the growing interest in colloidal assemblies in materials science for practical applications going from optoelectronics to biosensing imposes a thorough characterization of the morphology of colloidal assemblies because of the intimate relationship between morphology and physical properties (e.g. optical and mechanical) of a material. Several image analysis techniques developed to investigate images (acquired via scanning electron microscopy, digital video microscopy and other imaging methods) provide variegated and complementary information on the colloidal structures under scrutiny. However, understanding how to use such image analysis tools to get information on the characteristics of the colloidal assemblies may represent a non-trivial task, because it requires the combination of approaches drawn from diverse disciplines such as image processing, computational geometry and computational topology and their application to a primarily physico-chemical process. Moreover, the lack of a systematic description of such analysis tools makes it difficult to select the ones more suitable for the features of the colloidal assembly under examination. In this review we provide a methodical and extensive description of real-space image analysis tools by explaining their principles and their application to the investigation of two-dimensional colloidal assemblies with different morphological characteristics.

Approaches to self-assembly of colloidal monolayers: A guide for nanotechnologists

Self-assembly of quasi-spherical colloidal particles in two-dimensional (2D) arrangements is essential for a wide range of applications from optoelectronics to surface engineering, from chemical and biological sensing to light harvesting and environmental remediation. Several self-assembly approaches have flourished throughout the years, with specific features in terms of complexity of the implementation, sensitivity to process parameters, characteristics of the final colloidal assembly. Selecting the proper method for a given application amidst the vast literature in this field can be a challenging task. In this review, we present an extensive classification and comparison of the different techniques adopted for 2D self-assembly in order to provide useful guidelines for scientists approaching this field. After an overview of the main applications of 2D colloidal assemblies, we describe the main mechanisms underlying their formation and introduce the mathematical tools commonly used to analyse their final morphology. Subsequently, we examine in detail each class of self-assembly techniques, with an explanation of the physical processes intervening in crystallization and a thorough investigation of the technical peculiarities of the different practical implementations. We point out the specific characteristics of the set-ups and apparatuses developed for self-assembly in terms of complexity, requirements, reproducibility, robustness, sensitivity to process parameters and morphology of the final colloidal pattern. Such an analysis will help the reader to individuate more easily the approach more suitable for a given application and will draw the attention towards the importance of the details of each implementation for the final results.

Understanding How Charged Nanoparticles Electrostatically Assemble and Distribute in 1-D

The effects of increasing the driving forces for a 1-D assembly of nanoparticles onto a surface are investigated with experimental results and models. Modifications, which take into account not only the particle-particle interactions but also particle-surface interactions, to previously established extended random sequential adsorption simulations are tested and verified. Both data and model are compared against the heterogeneous random sequential adsorption simulations, and finally, a connection between the two models is suggested. The experiments and models show that increasing the particle-surface interaction leads to narrower particle distribution; this narrowing is attributed to the surface interactions compensating against the particle-particle interactions. The long-term advantage of this work is that the assembly of nanoparticles in solution is now understood as controlled not only by particle-particle interactions but also by particle-surface interactions. Both particle-particle and particle-surface interactions can be used to tune how nanoparticles distribute themselves on a surface.

Giant absorption of light by molecular vibrations on a chip

Vibrational overtone spectroscopy of molecules is a powerful tool for drawing information on molecular structure and dynamics. It relies on absorption of near infrared radiation (NIR) by molecular vibrations. Here we show the experimental evidence of giant enhancement of the absorption of light in solutions of organic molecules due to the switch from ballistic to diffusive propagation of light through a channel silicate glass waveguide. We also experimentally address a dynamics of absorption as a function of time of adsorption of the organic molecules on a waveguide. The observed enhancement in diffusion regime is by a factor of 300 in N-Methylaniline and by factor of 80 in Aniline compared to the expected values in the case of ballistic propagation of light in a waveguide. Our results underscore the importance of a guide surface modification and the disordered molecular nano-layer in enhancement of absorption by amines on engineered integrated system.

Layer-by-layer assembly of Ag nanowires into 3D woodpile-like structures to achieve high density "hot spots" for surface-enhanced Raman scattering

The surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) "hot spots" are highly localized regions of enhanced electromagnetic field within a SERS substrate that dominate the overall SERS intensity. This results in inhomogeneous distribution of SERS intensity in a SERS substrate, thus limiting their application as reproducible and ultrasensitive sensing platforms. Here, we address this challenge by fabricating Ag nanowires into three-dimensional (3D) woodpile-like platforms via layer-by-layer Langmuir-Blodgett assembly. We focus on promoting strong electromagnetic coupling between parallel and vertically stacked Ag nanowire pairs within the woodpile structure to achieve a high density of "hot spots" across the entire 3D SERS substrates. Raman mapping (x-y plane) demonstrates that all of the 3D Ag nanowire arrays exhibit a homogeneous SERS Raman intensity over a large area, whereas their monolayer counterpart experiences >50% of zero and/or an undetectable SERS signal. The SERS enhancement factor increases from 3.1 × 10(3) to 2.6 × 10(4), as the assembled Ag nanowire layer increases from monolayer to three layers, respectively. We attribute the homogeneous SERS signal to the high density of "hot spots" arising from the vertical and lateral gaps within the woodpile layers. The SERS signals plateau off when the number of layers increase from three to five, which can be attributed to limited laser penetration depth. The assembled multilayered silver nanowires demonstrate a larger SERS depth cross section and angle-independent SERS intensity, making such woodpile 3D SERS substrate more reliable and versatile for future sensing applications.

Electrochemically controlled assembly and logic gates operations of gold nanoparticle arrays

The reversible assembly of β-cyclodextrin-functionalized gold NPs (β-CD Au NPs) is studied on mixed self-assembled monolayer (SAM), formed by coadsorption of redox-active ferrocenylalkylthiols and n-alkanethiols on gold surfaces. The surface coverage and spatial distribution of the β-CD Au NPs monolayer on the gold substrate are tuned by the self-assembled monolayer composition. The binding and release of β-CD Au NPs to and from the SAMs modified surface are followed by surface plasmon resonance (SPR) spectroscopy. The redox state of the tethered ferrocene in binary SAMs controls the formation of the supramolecular interaction between ferrocene moieties and β-CD-capped Au NPs. As a result, the potential-induced uptake and release of β-CD Au NPs to and from the surface is accomplished. The competitive binding of β-CD Au NPs with guest molecules in solution shifted the equilibrium of the complexation-decomplexation process involving the supramolecular interaction with the Fc-functionalized surface. The dual controlled assembly of β-CD Au NPs on the surface enabled to use two stimuli as inputs for logic gate activation; the coupling between the localized surface plasmon, associated with the Au NP, and the surface plasmon wave, associated with the thin metal surface, is implemented as readout signal for "AND" logic gate operations.

Directed self-assembly of nanogold using a chemically modified nanopatterned surface

Electron-beam lithography (EBL) was used to define an aminosilane nanopatterned surface in order to electrostatically self-assemble gold nanoparticles (Au NPs). The chemically modified nanopatterned surfaces were immersed into a Au NP solution to allow the Au NPs to self-assemble. Equilibrium self-assembly was achieved in only 20 min. The number of Au NPs that self-assembled on an aminosilane dot was controlled by manipulating the diameters of both the Au NPs and the dots. Adding salt to the Au NP solution enabled the Au NPs to self-assemble in greater numbers on the same sized dot. However, the preparation of the Au NP solution containing salt was sensitive to spikes in the salt concentration. These spikes led to aggregation of the Au NPs and non-specific deposition of Au NPs on the substrate. The Au NP patterned surfaces were immersed in a sodium hydroxide solution in order to lift-off the patterned Au NPs, but no lift-off was observed without adequate physical agitation. The van der Waals forces are too strong to allow for lift-off despite the absence of electrostatic forces.

Adaptive supramolecular nanomaterials based on strong noncovalent interactions

Noncovalent systems are adaptive and allow facile processing and recycling. Can they be at the same time robust? How can one rationally design such systems? Can they compete with high-performance covalent materials? The recent literature reveals that noncovalent systems can be robust yet adaptive, self-healing, and recyclable, featuring complex nanoscale structures and unique functions. We review such systems, focusing on the rational design of strong noncovalent interactions, kinetically controlled pathway-dependent processes, complexity, and function. The overview of the recent examples points at the emergent field of noncovalent nanomaterials that can represent a versatile, multifunctional, and environmentally friendly alternative to conventional covalent systems.

Heavy metal ion adsorption behavior in nitrogen-doped magnetic carbon nanoparticles: isotherms and kinetic study

To clarify the heavy metal adsorption mechanism of nitrogen-doped magnetic carbon nanoparticles (N-MCNPs), adsorption capacity was investigated from the adsorption isotherms, kinetics and thermodynamics points of view. The obtained results showed that the equilibrium adsorption behavior of Cr(3+) ion onto the N-MCNPs can be applied to the Langmuir model and pseudo-second-order kinetics. It indicated that the fabricated N-MCNPs had the homogenous surface for adsorption and all adsorption sites had equal adsorption energies. Furthermore, the adsorption onto N-MCNPs taken place through a chemical process involving the valence forces. According to the thermodynamics, the adsorption process is spontaneous and endothermic in nature which means that the adsorption capacity increases with increasing temperature due to the enhanced mobility of adsorbate molecules. The effects of the solution pH and the species of heavy metal ion on the adsorption uptake were also studied. The synthesized N-MCNPs exhibited an enhanced adsorption capacity for the heavy metal ions due to the high surface area and large amount of nitrogen contents.

3D ordered nanostructures fabricated by nanosphere lithography using an organometallic etch mask

A new approach for fabricating porous structures on silicon substrates and on polymer surfaces, using colloidal particle arrays with a polymer mask of a highly etch-resistant organometallic polymer, is demonstrated. Monolayers of silica particles, with diameters of 60 nm, 150 nm, 300 nm, or 500 nm, were deposited either on a silicon substrate or on a surface coated with polyethersulfone (PES), and the voids of the arrays were filled with poly(ferrocenylmethylphenylsilane) (PFMPS). Argon ion sputtering removed the excess PFMPS on the particles which enabled removal of the particles with HF. Further pattern transfer steps with reactive ion etching for different time intervals provided structures in silicon or in a PES layer. Free-standing PES membranes exhibiting regular arrays of circular holes with high porosity were fabricated by using cellulose acetate as a sacrificial layer. The pores obtained on silicon substrates after etching were used as molds for nanoimprint lithography (NIL). A combination of the techniques of nanosphere lithography (NSL) and NIL has resulted in 3D nanostructures with a hemispherical shape (inherited from the nanoparticles) which was obtained both in silicon and in PMMA.

Angelo SK, González P, Keating CD, Fichthorn KA. Assembly of gold nanowires by sedimentation from suspension: Experiments and simulation

We investigated the ordering of gold nanowires that settled from aqueous suspension onto a glass substrate due to gravity. The nanowires, ca. 300 nm in cross-sectional diameter and ca. 2, 4, or 7 microns in length, were coated with 2-mercaptoethanesulfonic acid to provide electrostatic repulsion and prevent aggregation. The layer of nanowires in direct contact with the substrate was examined from below using optical microscopy and found to exhibit smectic-like ordering. The extent of smectic ordering depended on nanowire length with the shortest (2 μm) nanowires exhibiting the best ordering. To understand the assembly in this system, we used canonical Monte Carlo simulations to model the two-dimensional ordering of the nanowires on a substrate. We accounted for van der Waals and electrostatic interactions between the nanowires. The simulations reproduced the experimental trends and showed that roughness at the ends of the nanowires, which locally increased electrostatic repulsion, is critical to correctly predicting the experimentally observed smectic ordering.

Tunable pyramidal assemblies of nanoparticles by convective/capillary deposition on hydrophilic patterns made by AFM oxidation lithography

Close-packed pyramidal assemblies of 100 nm latex nanoparticles were made by convective/capillary deposition on hydrophilic patterns created by oxidation lithography using atomic force microscopy (AFM). We demonstrated that the substrate temperature during convective/capillary assembly is a key experimental parameter in finely tuning the geometry of these pyramids and thus the total number of nanoparticles forming each 3D assembly. The volume and shape of these nanoparticle assemblies are discussed and compared to simulations.

From supramolecular chemistry to nanotechnology: Assembly of 3D nanostructures

Fabricating well-defined and stable nanoparticle crystals in a controlled fashion receives growing attention in nanotechnology. The order and packing symmetry within a nanoparticle crystal is of utmost importance for the development of materials with unique optical and electronic properties. To generate stable and ordered 3D nanoparticle structures, nanotechnology is combined with supramolecular chemistry to control the self-assembly of 2D and 3D receptor-functionalized nanoparticles. This review focuses on the use of molecular recognition chemistry to establish stable, ordered, and functional nanoparticle structures. The host–guest complexation of β-cyclodextrin (CD) and its guest molecules (e.g., adamantane and ferrocene) are applied to assist the nanoparticle assembly. Direct adsorption of supramolecular guest- and host-functionalized nanoparticles onto (patterned) CD self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) occurs via multivalent host–guest interactions and layer-by-layer (LbL) assembly. The reversibility and fine-tuning of the nanoparticle-surface binding strength in this supramolecular assembly scheme are the control parameters in the process. Furthermore, the supramolecular nanoparticle assembly has been integrated with top-down nanofabrication schemes to generate stable and ordered 3D nanoparticle structures, with controlled geometries and sizes, on surfaces, other interfaces, and as free-standing structures.

Freestanding 3D supramolecular particle bridges: fabrication and mechanical behavior

Freestanding particle bridges with controlled composition and macroscopic robustness are demonstrated by the use of supramolecular nanoparticle assembly. Self-assembly of nanoparticles, templating, and supramolecular glue infiltration are combined to form stable and ordered three-dimensional polystyrene particle composites on a polydimethylsiloxane stamp. Freestanding hybrid polystyrene nanoparticle bridges are obtained by transfer printing of the hybrid structures onto topographically patterned substrates via host-guest interactions. The mechanical robustness and rigidity of the particle bridges can be controlled by manipulating the layer-by-layer cycles of supramolecular glues of gold nanoparticles and dendrimers. Atomic force microscopy-based microbending results, in particular the location and force-dependent deflection behavior, confirm that the particle bridge fulfills the classical supported-beam characteristics. As estimated from classical beam theory, the bending moduli of the particle bridges vary between 0.8 and 1.1 GPa, depending on the degree of filling by the supramolecular glues. Failure analysis on the particle structure indicates linear elastic behavior and a plastic deformation upon failure.

Transfer-printing and host-guest properties of 3D supramolecular particle structures

Mechanically robust and crystalline supramolecular particle structures have been constructed by decoupling nanoparticle assembly and supramolecular glue infiltration into a sequential process. First, beta-cyclodextrin (CD)-functionalized polystyrene particles (d approximately 500 nm) were assembled on a CD-functionalized surface via convective assembly to form highly ordered, but mechanically unstable, particle crystals. Subsequently, the crystals were infiltrated by a solution of adamantyl-functionalized dendrimers, functioning as a supramolecular glue to bind neighboring particles together and to couple the entire particle crystal to the CD surface, both in a noncovalent manner. The supramolecular particle crystals are highly robust, as witnessed by their ability to withstand agitation by ultrasonication. When assembled on a poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) stamp, the dendrimer-infiltrated particle crystals could be transfer-printed onto a CD-functionalized target surface. By variation of the geometry and size of the PDMS stamps, single particle lines, interconnected particle rings, and V-shaped particle assemblies were obtained. The particle structures served as 3D receptors for the binding of (multiple) complementary guest molecules, indicating that the supramolecular host functionalities of the particle crystals were retained throughout the fabrication process.

Microcontact printing of dendrimers, proteins, and nanoparticles by porous stamps

Porous stamps fabricated by one-step phase separation micromolding were used for microcontact printing of polar inks, in particular aqueous solutions of dendrimers, proteins, and nanoparticles. Permanent hydrophilicity was achieved without any additional treatment by tailored choice of the polymer components. Pores with several hundred nanometers to micrometers were obtained during the phase separation process. These pores can act as ink reservoirs. The porous stamps were thoroughly characterized by SEM, NMR, and contact angle measurement. The versatility of the porous stamps was shown in three printing schemes. First, positive microcontact printing was achieved by printing a polar thioether-modified dendrimer as the ink, followed by backfilling and wet etching. Second, the porous stamps were used for multiple printing of fluorescent proteins without reinking. Third, nanoparticles of about 60 nm in diameter, which cannot be directly transferred by oxidized PDMS stamps, were successfully printed onto substrates by using these porous stamps.

Stable and transparent superhydrophobic nanoparticle films

A superhydrophobic surface with a static water contact angle (theta(w)) > 150 degrees was created by a simple "dip-coating" method of 60-nm SiO2 nanoparticles onto an amine-terminated (NH2) self-assembled monolayer (SAM) glass/silicon oxide substrate, followed by chemical vapor deposition of a fluorinated adsorbate. For comparison, a close-packed nanoparticle film, formed by convective assembly, gave theta(w) approximately 120 degrees. The stability of the superhydrophobic coating was enhanced by sintering of the nanoparticles in an O2 environment at high temperature (1100 degress C). A sliding angle of < 5 degrees indicated the self-cleaning properties of the surface. The dip-coating method can be applied to glass substrates to prepare surfaces that are superhydrophobic and transparent.

Modulating colloidal adsorption on a two-dimensional protein crystal

The geometric and physicochemical properties of the protein streptavidin make it a useful building block in the construction and manipulation of nanoscale structures and devices. However, one requirement in exploiting streptavidin for "bottom-up" assembly is the capability to modulate protein-nanoparticle interactions. This work examines the effects of pH and the biotin-streptavidin interaction on the adsorption of colloidal gold onto a two-dimensional streptavidin crystal. Particle deposition was carried out below (pH 6), at (pH 7), and above (pH 8) the protein's isoelectric point with both biotinylated and nonbiotinylated nanoparticles. Particle surface coverage depends on deposition time and pH, and increases by 1.4-10 times when biotin is incorporated onto the particle surface. This coverage is highest for both particle types at pH 6 and decreases monotonically with increasing pH. Calculations of interparticle potentials based on Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek (DLVO) theory demonstrate that this trend in surface coverage is most likely due to alterations in particle-surface electrostatic interactions and not a result of changes in interparticle electrostatic repulsion. Furthermore, post-adsorption alterations in pH demonstrate that electrostatically adsorbed particles can be selectively desorbed from the surface. Evaluation of the nonspecifically adsorbed fraction of biotinylated particles indicates that the receptor-ligand adsorption mechanism gives a higher rate of attachment to the substrate than nonspecific, electrostatic adsorption. This results in faster adsorption kinetics and higher coverages for biotinylated particles relative to the nonbiotinylated case.

Supramolecular layer-by-layer assembly of 3D multicomponent nanostructures via multivalent molecular recognition

The supramolecular layer-by-layer assembly of 3D multicomponent nanostructures of nanoparticles is demonstrated. Nanoimprint lithography (NIL) was used as the patterning tool for making patterned beta-cyclodextrin (CD) self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) and for the confinement of nanoparticles on the substrate. A densely packed and multilayered nanoparticle structure was created by alternating assembly steps of complementary guest- (Fc-SiO(2), 60 nm) and host-functionalized (CD-Au, 3 nm) nanoparticles. The effects induced by the order of the nanoparticle assembly steps, going from large to small and from small to large nanoparticles by using Fc-SiO(2), CD-Au, and CD-SiO(2) (350 nm) nanoparticles, were compared. AFM height profiles revealed that the specific supramolecular assembly of nanoparticles was self-limited, i.e. one nanoparticle layer per assembly step, allowing the control over the thickness of the supramolecular hybrid nanostructure by choosing the size of the nanoparticles, irrespective of the core material of the nanoparticles. The roughness of structure, observed by AFM imaging of the top layer, was directly influenced by the size and packing of the underlying nanoparticle layers.