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Pula P, Leniart A, Majewski PW. Solvent-assisted self-assembly of block copolymer thin films. SOFT MATTER 2022; 18:4042-4066. [PMID: 35608282 DOI: 10.1039/d2sm00439a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Solvent-assisted block copolymer self-assembly is a compelling method for processing and advancing practical applications of these materials due to the exceptional level of the control of BCP morphology and significant acceleration of ordering kinetics. Despite substantial experimental and theoretical efforts devoted to understanding of solvent-assisted BCP film ordering, the development of a universal BCP patterning protocol remains elusive; possibly due to a multitude of factors which dictate the self-assembly scenario. The aim of this review is to aggregate both seminal reports and the latest progress in solvent-assisted directed self-assembly and to provide the reader with theoretical background, including the outline of BCP ordering thermodynamics and kinetics phenomena. We also indicate significant BCP research areas and emerging high-tech applications where solvent-assisted processing might play a dominant role.
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Affiliation(s)
- Przemyslaw Pula
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warsaw, Warsaw 02089, Poland.
| | - Arkadiusz Leniart
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warsaw, Warsaw 02089, Poland.
| | - Pawel W Majewski
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warsaw, Warsaw 02089, Poland.
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2
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Park S, Tsarkova LA. Surface Roughness-Mediated Ordering in Block Copolymer Films toward Spatially Controlled Patterns. Macromolecules 2017. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.7b01185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sungjune Park
- Department
of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, North Carolina State University, 911 Partners Way, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, United States
| | - Larisa A. Tsarkova
- Faculty
of Chemistry, Chair of Colloid Chemistry, Moscow State University, GSP-1, 1-3 Leninskiye Gory, 119991 Moscow 1, Russia
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3
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Cetintas M, Kamperman M. Self-assembly of PS-b-PNIPAM-b-PS block copolymer thin films via selective solvent annealing. POLYMER 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymer.2016.08.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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4
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Choi J, Huh J, Carter KR, Russell TP. Directed Self-Assembly of Block Copolymer Thin Films Using Minimal Topographic Patterns. ACS NANO 2016; 10:7915-7925. [PMID: 27391372 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.6b03857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
We demonstrate that a minimal topographic pattern with a confinement depth (D) much less than the domain spacing of block copolymers (L0) can be used to achieve highly ordered hexagonal arrays or unidirectionally aligned line patterns over large areas. Cylinder-forming poly(styrene-b-ethylene oxide) (PS-b-PEO) thin films were prepared on a series of minimal single trench patterns with different widths (W) and D. Upon thermal annealing, hexagonal arrays of cylindrical microdomains propagated away from the edges of a single trench, providing insight into the minimum pitch (P) of the trench necessary to fully order hexagonal arrays. The confinement trench D of 0.30L0, the W in the range of 1.26L0 to 2.16L0, and the P as long as 18.84L0 were found to be effective for the generation of laterally ordered hexagonal arrays with the density amplification up by a factor of 17, within the minimally patterned trench surfaces of 100 μm by 100 μm. Furthermore, we produced line patterns of cylindrical microdomains by using solvent vapor annealing on the minimally patterned trench surfaces. However, highly aligned line patterns could be achieved only on the patterned surface with P = 5.75L0, W = 1.26L0, and D = 0.30L0 because the influence of the minimally patterned trench surface on the lateral ordering decreased as the P and W increase at the fixed D, resulting in poor ordering. These findings suggest that the minimal topographic pattern is more effective in guiding hexagonal arrays than in guiding line patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaewon Choi
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, University of Massachusetts Amherst , 120 Governors Drive, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, United States
| | - June Huh
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Korea University , 145 Anam-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Kenneth R Carter
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, University of Massachusetts Amherst , 120 Governors Drive, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, United States
| | - Thomas P Russell
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, University of Massachusetts Amherst , 120 Governors Drive, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, United States
- Materials Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory , Berkeley, California 94720, United States
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Xu X, He Z, Wang Q, Chen F, Fu Q. Self-Assembly of PS-b-PDMS on a Tunable PDMS Template with Nanoscale Channels and Enhanced Anisotropic Wetting. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2015; 31:4605-4611. [PMID: 25844896 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.5b00340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
In this article, we systematically studied the self-assembly of poly(styrene-block-dimethylsiloxane) (PS-b-PDMS) on a poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) substrate with nanoscale channels. The channeled PDMS substrate was achieved by a simple replica molding method. To decrease the effect that the subsequent solvent treatments had in distorting the soft PDMS substrate, a simple UV/O3 treatment was provided before the self-assembly, resulting in a relatively stable, harder and hydrophilic silicon oxide (SiO2) layer on the channeled PDMS surface. Ultimately, the isotropic SiO2 nanopatterns with spherical and long cylindrical morphologies were successfully fabricated by the self-assembly of two kinds of PS-b-PDMS on the PDMS substrate with nanoscale channels, respectively. In particular, we demonstrated that the introduction of isotropic SiO2 patterns is an effective approach to greatly enhance anisotropic wetting rather than that of the anisotropic structure with channels.
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6
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Block Co-Polymers for Nanolithography: Rapid Microwave Annealing for Pattern Formation on Substrates. Polymers (Basel) 2015. [DOI: 10.3390/polym7040592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
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Cummins C, Kelly RA, Gangnaik A, Georgiev YM, Petkov N, Holmes JD, Morris MA. Solvent vapor annealing of block copolymers in confined topographies: commensurability considerations for nanolithography. Macromol Rapid Commun 2015; 36:762-7. [PMID: 25704307 DOI: 10.1002/marc.201400722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2014] [Revised: 01/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The directed self-assembly of block copolymer (BCP) materials in topographically patterned substrates (i.e., graphoepitaxy) is a potential methodology for the continued scaling of nanoelectronic device technologies. In this Communication, an unusual feature size variation in BCP nanodomains under confinement with graphoepitaxially aligned cylinder-forming poly(styrene)-block-poly(4-vinylpyridine) (PS-b-P4VP) BCP is reported. Graphoepitaxy of PS-b-P4VP BCP line patterns (CII ) is accomplished via topo-graphy in hydrogen silsequioxane (HSQ) modified substrates and solvent vapor annealing (SVA). Interestingly, reduced domain sizes in features close to the HSQ guiding features are observed. The feature size reduction is evident after inclusion of alumina into the P4VP domains followed by pattern transfer to the silicon substrate. It is suggested that this nano-domain size perturbation is due to solvent swelling effects during SVA. It is proposed that using a commensurability value close to the solvent vapor annealed periodicity will alleviate this issue leading to uniform nanofins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cian Cummins
- Materials Research Group, Department of Chemistry and Tyndall National Institute, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
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8
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Molecular dynamic simulations of anisotropic wetting and embedding on functionalized polypropylene surfaces. Chem Phys 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chemphys.2013.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Berry BC, Singh G, Kim HC, Karim A. Highly Aligned Block Copolymer Thin Films by Synergistic Coupling of Static Graphoepitaxy and Dynamic Thermal Annealing Fields. ACS Macro Lett 2013; 2:346-350. [PMID: 35581764 DOI: 10.1021/mz400054y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Directed self-assembly of cylinder forming block copolymer (c-BCP) thin films via a dynamic thermal field on multidimensional symmetric graphoepitaxy channels is reported. A synergy of dynamic thermal and static boundary fields induces highly aligned c-BCP cylinders inside the channels with a power law dependence of orientational order parameter f, on trench width, f ∼ d-0.3, analogous to dual-field alignment of semiconducting metals and liquid crystals on graphoepitaxy surfaces, f' ∼ d-1. Static thermal annealing of identical films in a vacuum oven for several days fails to produce comparable results. Furthermore, we demonstrate global c-BCP cylinder alignment over mesas and trenches by tuning the synergy between the dynamic thermal field and asymmetry of the graphoepitaxy static field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian C. Berry
- Department of Chemistry, University of Arkansas at Little Rock, Little Rock,
Arkansas 72204, United States
| | - Gurpreet Singh
- Department of Polymer Engineering, The University of Akron (UA), Akron, Ohio 44325, United
States
| | - Ho-Cheol Kim
- IBM Research Division, Almaden Research Center, San Jose, California 95120-6099,
United States
| | - Alamgir Karim
- Department of Polymer Engineering, The University of Akron (UA), Akron, Ohio 44325, United
States
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Borah D, Shaw MT, Holmes JD, Morris MA. Sub-10 nm feature size PS-b-PDMS block copolymer structures fabricated by a microwave-assisted solvothermal process. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2013; 5:2004-2012. [PMID: 23421383 DOI: 10.1021/am302830w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Block copolymer (BCP) microphase separation at surfaces might enable the generation of substrate features in a scalable, manufacturable, bottom-up fashion provided that pattern structure, orientation, alignment can be strictly controlled. A further requirement is that self-assembly takes place within periods of the order of minutes so that continuous manufacturingprocesses do not require lengthy pretreatments and sample storageleading to contamination and large facility costs. We report here microwave-assisted solvothermal (in toluene environments) self-assembly and directed self-assembly of a very low molecular weight cylinder-forming polystyrene-block-polydimethylsiloxane (PS-b-PDMS) BCP on planar and patterned silicon nitride (Si3N4) substrates. Good pattern ordering was achieved in the order of minutes. Factors affecting BCP self-assembly, notably anneal time and temperature were studied and seen to have significant effects. Graphoepitaxy to direct self-assembly in the BCP yielded promising results producing BCP patterns with long-range translational alignment commensurate with the pitch period of the topographic patterns. This rapid BCP ordering method is consistent with the standard thermal/solvent anneal processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dipu Borah
- Materials Chemistry Section, Department of Chemistry, University College Cork, College Road, Cork, Ireland
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11
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Zhang P, Huang H, He T, Hu Z. Long-Range Ordered Crystallization Structure in the Micromolded Diblock Copolymer Thin Film. ACS Macro Lett 2012; 1:1007-1011. [PMID: 35607026 DOI: 10.1021/mz3002758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Confined crystallization of the micromolded poly(butadiene)-block-poly(ε-caprolactone) (PB-b-PCL) diblock copolymer thin film was studied in this work. The long-range regular ordering of the PCL crystal with crystallographic b-axis parallel to the long-axis of the channel was detected, as indicated by the electron diffraction and grazing-incidence X-ray diffraction experimental results. This preferential crystallographic orientation is mainly because that PCL block crystallization was readily influenced by the geometric effect, then, the fast-growth direction (crystallographic b-axis) was forced to extend along the long-axis of the channel to grow long. Moreover, the substrate induced ordering of the block copolymer restricted the "in-plane" molecular diffusion in the residual layer, and cross-channel crystallization was precluded. Hence, micromolding seems to be a promising method for tailoring the nanoscale crystallization of block copolymer in thin films.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Zhang
- State Key Laboratory
of Polymer Physics and Chemistry, Changchun Institute
of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130022, People's
Republic of China
| | - Haiying Huang
- State Key Laboratory
of Polymer Physics and Chemistry, Changchun Institute
of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130022, People's
Republic of China
| | - Tianbai He
- State Key Laboratory
of Polymer Physics and Chemistry, Changchun Institute
of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130022, People's
Republic of China
| | - Zhijun Hu
- Center for Soft
Condensed Matter Physics and Interdisciplinary Research, Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, People's
Republic of China
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O’Driscoll BMD, Griffiths GH, Matsen MW, Hamley IW. Structure Variation and Evolution in Microphase-Separated Grafted Diblock Copolymer Films. Macromolecules 2011. [DOI: 10.1021/ma2010074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Guy H. Griffiths
- Department of Mathematics, University of Reading, Whiteknights, Reading RG6 6AX, U.K
| | - Mark W. Matsen
- Department of Mathematics, University of Reading, Whiteknights, Reading RG6 6AX, U.K
| | - Ian W. Hamley
- Department of Chemistry, University of Reading, Whiteknights, Reading RG6 6AD, U.K
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Farrell RA, Kehagias N, Shaw MT, Reboud V, Zelsmann M, Holmes JD, Sotomayor Torres CM, Morris MA. Surface-directed dewetting of a block copolymer for fabricating highly uniform nanostructured microdroplets and concentric nanorings. ACS NANO 2011; 5:1073-1085. [PMID: 21226483 DOI: 10.1021/nn102720m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Through a combination of nanoimprint lithography and block copolymer self-assembly, a highly regular dewetting process of a symmetric diblock copolymer occurs whereby the hierarchal formation of microdroplets and concentric nanorings emerges. The process is driven by the unique chemical properties and geometrical layout of the underlying patterned silsesquioxane micrometer-sized templates. Given the presence of nonpreferential substrate-polymer interactions, directed dewetting was utilized to produce uniform arrays of microsized droplets of microphase separated polystyrene-block-poly(methyl methylacrylate) (PS-b-PMMA), following thermal annealing at 180 °C. Microdroplets with diameters greater than 400 nm exhibited a hexagonal close-packed arrangement of nanodots on the surface with polydomain ordering. At the droplet periphery, the polydomain ordering was severely disrupted because of a higher in-plane radius of curvature. By reducing the droplet size, the in-plane radius of curvature of the microdroplet becomes significant and the PMMA cylinders adopt parallel structures in this confined geometry. Continuous scaling of the droplet results in the generation of isolated, freestanding, self-aligned, and self-supported oblique nanorings (long axis ∼250-350 nm), which form as interstitial droplets between the larger microdroplets. Optical and magnetic-based nanostructures may benefit from such hierarchal organization and self-supporting/aligned nanoring templates by combining more than one lithography technique with different resolution capabilities.
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Han E, Kang H, Liu CC, Nealey PF, Gopalan P. Graphoepitaxial assembly of symmetric block copolymers on weakly preferential substrates. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2010; 22:4325-4329. [PMID: 20806266 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201001669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Eungnak Han
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, USA
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Farrell RA, Petkov N, Shaw MT, Djara V, Holmes JD, Morris MA. Monitoring PMMA Elimination by Reactive Ion Etching from a Lamellar PS-b-PMMA Thin Film by ex Situ TEM Methods. Macromolecules 2010. [DOI: 10.1021/ma101827u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Richard A. Farrell
- Materials and Supercritical Fluid Group, Department of Chemistry, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
- Centre for Research on Adaptive Nanostructures and Nanodevices (CRANN), Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
- Micro-Nano Electronics Centre, Tyndall National Institute, Lee Matings, Prospect Row, Cork, Ireland
| | - Nikolay Petkov
- Micro-Nano Electronics Centre, Tyndall National Institute, Lee Matings, Prospect Row, Cork, Ireland
- Electron Microscopy and Analysis Facility (EMAF), Tyndall National Institute, Lee Maltings, Prospect Row, Cork, Ireland
| | - Matthew T. Shaw
- Centre for Research on Adaptive Nanostructures and Nanodevices (CRANN), Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
- Intel Ireland limited, Collinstown Industrial Estate, Leixlip, Co. Kildare, Ireland
| | - Vladimir Djara
- Micro-Nano Electronics Centre, Tyndall National Institute, Lee Matings, Prospect Row, Cork, Ireland
| | - Justin D. Holmes
- Materials and Supercritical Fluid Group, Department of Chemistry, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
- Centre for Research on Adaptive Nanostructures and Nanodevices (CRANN), Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
- Micro-Nano Electronics Centre, Tyndall National Institute, Lee Matings, Prospect Row, Cork, Ireland
| | - Michael A. Morris
- Materials and Supercritical Fluid Group, Department of Chemistry, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
- Centre for Research on Adaptive Nanostructures and Nanodevices (CRANN), Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
- Micro-Nano Electronics Centre, Tyndall National Institute, Lee Matings, Prospect Row, Cork, Ireland
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Farrell RA, Petkov N, Morris MA, Holmes JD. Self-assembled templates for the generation of arrays of 1-dimensional nanostructures: From molecules to devices. J Colloid Interface Sci 2010; 349:449-72. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2010.04.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2009] [Revised: 04/16/2010] [Accepted: 04/19/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Farrell RA, Fitzgerald TG, Borah D, Holmes JD, Morris MA. Chemical interactions and their role in the microphase separation of block copolymer thin films. Int J Mol Sci 2009; 10:3671-3712. [PMID: 19865513 PMCID: PMC2769138 DOI: 10.3390/ijms10093671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2009] [Accepted: 08/14/2009] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The thermodynamics of self-assembling systems are discussed in terms of the chemical interactions and the intermolecular forces between species. It is clear that there are both theoretical and practical limitations on the dimensions and the structural regularity of these systems. These considerations are made with reference to the microphase separation that occurs in block copolymer (BCP) systems. BCP systems self-assemble via a thermodynamic driven process where chemical dis-affinity between the blocks driving them part is balanced by a restorative force deriving from the chemical bond between the blocks. These systems are attracting much interest because of their possible role in nanoelectronic fabrication. This form of self-assembly can obtain highly regular nanopatterns in certain circumstances where the orientation and alignment of chemically distinct blocks can be guided through molecular interactions between the polymer and the surrounding interfaces. However, for this to be possible, great care must be taken to properly engineer the interactions between the surfaces and the polymer blocks. The optimum methods of structure directing are chemical pre-patterning (defining regions on the substrate of different chemistry) and graphoepitaxy (topographical alignment) but both centre on generating alignment through favourable chemical interactions. As in all self-assembling systems, the problems of defect formation must be considered and the origin of defects in these systems is explored. It is argued that in these nanostructures equilibrium defects are relatively few and largely originate from kinetic effects arising during film growth. Many defects also arise from the confinement of the systems when they are 'directed' by topography. The potential applications of these materials in electronics are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard A. Farrell
- Department of Chemistry, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland; E-Mails: (R.A.F.); (T.G.F.); (D.B.); (J.D.H.)
- Centre for Research on Adaptive Nanostructures and Nanodevices (CRANN), Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
- Tyndall National Institute, The Maltings, Cork, Ireland
| | - Thomas G. Fitzgerald
- Department of Chemistry, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland; E-Mails: (R.A.F.); (T.G.F.); (D.B.); (J.D.H.)
- Centre for Research on Adaptive Nanostructures and Nanodevices (CRANN), Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
- Intel Ireland, Leixlip, Co. Kildare, Ireland
| | - Dipu Borah
- Department of Chemistry, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland; E-Mails: (R.A.F.); (T.G.F.); (D.B.); (J.D.H.)
- Centre for Research on Adaptive Nanostructures and Nanodevices (CRANN), Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Justin D. Holmes
- Department of Chemistry, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland; E-Mails: (R.A.F.); (T.G.F.); (D.B.); (J.D.H.)
- Centre for Research on Adaptive Nanostructures and Nanodevices (CRANN), Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
- Tyndall National Institute, The Maltings, Cork, Ireland
| | - Michael A. Morris
- Department of Chemistry, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland; E-Mails: (R.A.F.); (T.G.F.); (D.B.); (J.D.H.)
- Centre for Research on Adaptive Nanostructures and Nanodevices (CRANN), Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
- Tyndall National Institute, The Maltings, Cork, Ireland
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