Adsorption of the cationic surfactant cetyltrimethylammonium bromide to silica in the presence of sodium salicylate: surface excess and kinetics

Study on Flocculation Behavior of Cr(VI) Using a Novel Chitosan Functionalized with Thiol Groups

In this study, CTS-GSH was prepared by grafting thiol (-SH) groups onto chitosan (CTS), which was characterized through Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR) spectra, Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Differential Thermal Analysis-Thermogravimetric Analysis (DTA-TG). The performance of CTS-GSH was evaluated by measuring Cr(VI) removal efficiency. The -SH group was successfully grafted onto CTS, forming a chemical composite, CTS-GSH, with a rough, porous and spatial network surface. All of the molecules tested in this study were efficient at removing Cr(VI) from the solution. The more CTS-GSH added, the more Cr(VI) removed. When a suitable dosage of CTS-GSH was added, Cr(VI) was almost completely removed. The acidic environment at pH 5-6 was beneficial for the removal of Cr(VI), and at pH 6, the maximum removal efficiency was achieved. Further experimentation showed that with 100.0 mg/L CTS-GSH for the disposal of 5.0 mg/L Cr(VI) solution, the removal rate of Cr(VI) reached 99.3% with a slow stirring time of 8.0 min and sedimentation time of 3 h; the presence of four common ions, including Mg²⁺, Ca²⁺, SO₄^2- and CO₃^2-, had an inhibitory effect on CTS-GSH's ability to remove Cr(VI) from the aqueous solution, and more CTS-GSH was needed to reduce this inhibiting action. Overall, CTS-GSH exhibited good results in Cr(VI) removal, and thus has good potential for the further treatment of heavy metal wastewater.

Atomic Force Microscopy Force Mapping Analysis of an Adsorbed Surfactant above and below the Critical Micelle Concentration

Force curves collected using an atomic force microscope (AFM) in the presence of adsorbed surfactants are often used to draw conclusions about adsorbed film packing, rigidity, and thickness. However, some noteworthy features of such force curve characteristics have yet to be thoroughly investigated and explained. In this work, we collected force curves from tetradecyltrimethylammonium bromide films adsorbed on highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG), silica, and silica that had been hydrophobized by functionalization with dichlorodimethyl silane. Breakthrough events in the force curves from several different trials were compared to show that the breakthrough distance, often reported as the adsorbed film thickness, increased with concentration below the critical micelle concentration (CMC) but was approximately 3.5 nm on all surfaces between 2× and 10× CMC; an unexpected result because of the different surface chemistries for the three surfaces. We employed an AFM probe with a different force constant ( k) value as well as a colloidal probe and the breakthrough distance remained approximately 3.5 nm in all cases. Gradient mapping, a variant of force mapping, was also implemented on the three surfaces and resulted in a new technique for visualizing adsorbed surfactant in situ. The resulting maps showed patches of adsorbed surfactant below the CMC and revealed that with increasing concentration, the size of the patches increased resulting in full coverage near and above the CMC. These results are, to our knowledge, the first time force mapping has been used to spatially track patches of adsorbed surfactant. Finally, layers of surfactants on an AFM tip were investigated by collecting a force map on a single AFM tip using the tip of a separate AFM probe. A breakthrough event was observed between the tips, indicating that a layer of surfactant was present on at least one, if not both tips.

The Role of Citric Acid in the Stabilization of Nanoparticles and Colloidal Particles in the Environment: Measurement of Surface Forces between Hafnium Oxide Surfaces in the Presence of Citric Acid

The interactions between colloidal particles and nanoparticles determine solution stability and the structures formed when the particles are unstable to flocculation. Therefore, knowledge of the interparticle interactions is important for understanding the transport, dissolution, and fate of particles in the environment. The interactions between particles are governed by the surface properties of the particles, which are altered when species adsorb to the surface. The important interactions in the environment are almost never those between the bare particles but rather those between particles that have been modified by the adsorption of natural organic materials. Citric acid is important in this regard not only because it is present in soil but also as a model of humic and fulvic acids. Here we have studied the surface forces between the model metal oxide surface hafnia in the presence of citric acid in order to understand the stability of colloidal particles and nanoparticles. We find that citric acid stabilizes the particles over a wide range of pH at low to moderate ionic strength. At high ionic strength, colloidal particles will flocculate due to a secondary minimum, resulting in aggregates that are dense and easily redispersed. In contrast, nanoparticles stabilized by citric acid remain stable at high ionic strengths and therefore exist in solution as individual particles; this will contribute to their dispersion in the environment and the uptake of nanoparticles by mammalian cells.

The flotation and adsorption of mixed collectors on oxide and silicate minerals

The analysis of flotation and adsorption of mixed collectors on oxide and silicate minerals is of great importance for both industrial applications and theoretical research. Over the past years, significant progress has been achieved in understanding the adsorption of single collectors in micelles as well as at interfaces. By contrast, the self-assembly of mixed collectors at liquid/air and solid/liquid interfaces remains a developing area as a result of the complexity of the mixed systems involved and the limited availability of suitable analytical techniques. In this work, we systematically review the processes involved in the adsorption of mixed collectors onto micelles and at interface by examining four specific points, namely, theoretical background, factors that affect adsorption, analytical techniques, and self-assembly of mixed surfactants at the mineral/liquid interface. In the first part, the theoretical background of collector mixtures is introduced, together with several core solution theories, which are classified according to their application in the analysis of physicochemical properties of mixed collector systems. In the second part, we discuss the factors that can influence adsorption, including factors related to the structure of collectors and environmental conditions. We summarize their influence on the adsorption of mixed systems, with the objective to provide guidance on the progress achieved in this field to date. Advances in measurement techniques can greatly promote our understanding of adsorption processes. In the third part, therefore, modern techniques such as optical reflectometry, neutron scattering, neutron reflectometry, thermogravimetric analysis, fluorescence spectroscopy, ultrafiltration, atomic force microscopy, analytical ultracentrifugation, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, Vibrational Sum Frequency Generation Spectroscopy and molecular dynamics simulations are introduced in virtue of their application. Finally, focusing on oxide and silicate minerals, we review and summarize the flotation and adsorption of three most widely used mixed surfactant systems (anionic-cationic, anionic-nonionic, and cationic-nonionic) at the liquid/mineral interface in order to fully understand the self-assembly progress. In the end, the paper gives a brief future outlook of the possible development in the mixed surfactants.

Wetting of nanophases: Nanobubbles, nanodroplets and micropancakes on hydrophobic surfaces

The observation by Atomic Force Microscopy of a range of nanophases on hydrophobic surfaces poses some challenging questions, not only related to the stability of these objects but also regarding their wetting properties. Spherical capped nanobubbles are observed to exhibit contact angles that far exceed the macroscopic contact angle measured for the same materials, whereas nanodroplets exhibit contact angles that are much the same as the macroscopic contact angle. Micropancakes are reported to consist of gas, in which case their wetting properties are mysterious. They should only be stable when the van der Waals forces act to thicken the film whereas for a gas, the van der Waals forces will always act to thin the film. Here we examine the available evidence and contribute some additional experiments in order to review our understanding of the wetting properties of these nanophases. We demonstrate that if in fact micropancakes consist of a contaminant their wetting properties can be explained, though the very high contact angles of nanobubbles remain unexplained.

Ultrasonic transformation of micelle structures: effect of frequency and power

A comprehensive investigation on the effect of ultrasonic frequency and power on the structural transformation of CTABr/NaSal micelles has been carried out. Sonication of this micelle system at various ultrasonic frequencies and power resulted in the formation and separation of two types of micelles. High viscoelastic threadlike micelles of ∼ 2 nm in diameter and several μm in length and tubular micelles possessing a viscosity slightly above that of water with ∼ 30-50 nm diameter and few hundred nm length. The structural transformation of micelles was induced by the shear forces generated during acoustic cavitation. At a fixed acoustic power of 40 W, the structural transformation was found to decrease from 211 to 647 kHz frequency due to the decreasing shear forces generated, as evidenced by rheological measurements and cryo-TEM images. At 355 kHz, an increase in the structural transformation was observed with an increase in acoustic power. These findings provide a knowledge base that could be useful for the manipulation of viscosity of micelles that may have applications in oil industry.

Sphere to rod transitions in self assembled systems probed using direct force measurement

The influence of nanoparticle shape, in particular the sphere to rod transition, on surface forces and consequently the properties of colloidal fluids is an interesting but not well investigated phenomenon. Here, the surface force behaviour of concentrated surfactant solutions containing cetyltrimethylammonium bromide and sodium salicylate with micelle shapes varying from slightly prolate to high aspect ratio rods was measured. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) with both rigid particle and soft droplet probes was used with comparisons and analysis made using the Chan-Dagastine-White model. It is observed that small changes to the micelle shape result in no discernable differences to the surface force behaviour, however, once the micelles are elongated significantly, the long range forces adjust in nature from oscillatory to that of a single attractive force well. This highlights the importance that nanocolloid shape has on the behaviour and properties of emulsions and other colloidal fluids, specifically for emulsion flocculation and handling in systems of rod and worm like micelles.

Spontaneous vesicle phase formation by pseudogemini surfactants in aqueous solutions

The phase behavior of a kind of pseudogemini surfactant in aqueous solutions, formed by the mixture of sodium dodecyl benzene sulfonate (SDBS) and butane-1,4-bis (methylimidazolium bromide) ([mim-C4-mim]Br2) or butane-1,4-bis(methylpyrrolidinium bromide) ([mpy-C4-mpy]Br2) in a molar ratio of 2 : 1, is reported in the present work. When [mim-C4-mim]Br2 or [mpy-C4-mpy]Br2 is mixed with SDBS in aqueous solutions, one cationic [mim-C4-mim]Br2 or [mpy-C4-mpy]Br2 molecule "bridges" two SDBS molecules by noncovalent interactions (e.g. electrostatic, π-π stacking, and σ-π interactions), behaving like a pseudogemini surfactant. Vesicles can be formed by this kind of pseudogemini surfactant, determined by freeze-fracture transmission electron microscopy (FF-TEM) or cryogenic-transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM) and dynamic light scattering (DLS). The mixed system of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) with [mim-C4-mim]Br2 or [mpy-C4-mpy]Br2 was also constructed, and only micelles were observed. We infer that a pseudogemini surfactant is formed under the synergic effect of electrostatic, π-π stacking, and σ-π interactions in the SDBS/[mim-C4-mim]Br2/H2O system, while electrostatic attraction and hydrophobic interactions may provide the directional force for vesicle formation in the SDBS/[mpy-C4-mpy]Br2/H2O system.

Coadsorption of low-molecular weight aromatic and aliphatic alcohols and acids with the cationic surfactant, CTAB, on silica surfaces

We have investigated the coadsorption of a range of small molecules with the cationic surfactant CTAB to silica surfaces over a range of concentrations and CTAB to solute ratios and compared the coadsorption with adsorption in the presence of the salicylate ion. We find that molecules with aromatic character and molecules with double bonds are most favorably adsorbed, and we attribute this to cation-π bonding between the surfactant headgroups and the π orbitals of the unsaturated bonds of the solute molecules. The adsorption is complex and depends on chemical interactions between the solute molecules and the surfactant, which are highly specific to the structure of the solute. To improve our understanding of the specifics of these interactions, we have performed one-dimensional rotating frame Overhauser spectroscopy (ROESY) nuclear magnetic resonance experiments. These experiments show the complexity of the intermolecular interactions and can be used to determine the position of the solute molecule with regard to the CTAB molecules in the adsorbed aggregates. The ROESY spectrum for the salicylate anion is distinct from those of the other solute molecules and suggests that the anions are dimerizing. Along with the cation-π bonding between the dimers, this provides a model for the strong influence that salicylate has on adsorption, micellar structure, and viscoelasticity. The ROESY data indicate that the catechol molecule interacts with all parts of the surfactant alkane chains such that they wrap around the molecule, but this has little effect on the interfacial curvature or aggregate shape. More intense isophthalic acid-CTAB intermolecular ROEs compared to those of other aromatic solutes are consistent with an interaction between isophthalic acid and the headgroups of two surfactant molecules that slows the intramicellar motion of isophthalic acid. Differences in interactions between solute molecules and the aliphatic surfactant chains do not result in changes in micelle structure.

Surface forces between titanium dioxide surfaces in the presence of cationic surfactant as a function of surfactant concentration, electrolyte concentration, and pH

Titanium dioxide (titania) surfaces produced by atomic layer deposition (ALD) are suitable for surfactant adsorption and surface force measurements. Adsorption isotherms for cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) on ALD titanium dioxide surfaces were measured using optical reflectometry (OR), and surface force measurements between ALD titanium dioxide surfaces in aqueous CTAB solutions were measured using the colloid probe technique at different pH and electrolyte concentrations. Measurements were performed at a range of concentrations below and above the common intersection point (CIP) where adsorption is dominated by electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions, respectively. An examination of surfactant adsorption above and below the isoelectric point (IEP) was performed. Interestingly, significant levels of adsorption were observed below the IEP where the electrostatic interactions are unfavorable. The adsorption results are used to interpret the force data, which is dependent upon the amount of surfactant adsorbed and the electrolyte concentration and pH. The surface force data is compared to DLVO theory. Poor fits are obtained when Lifshitz theory is used to describe the dispersion forces. However, all of the data are fit well with a dispersion force of reduced magnitude. The kinetics of adsorption was measured and reveals very slow adsorption kinetics below the critical micelle concentration as a result of the monomer-by-monomer formation of aggregates on the surface.

Adsorption isotherms and structure of cationic surfactants adsorbed on mineral oxide surfaces prepared by atomic layer deposition

The adsorption isotherms and aggregate structures of adsorbed surfactants on smooth thin-film surfaces of mineral oxides have been studied by optical reflectometry and atomic force microscopy (AFM). Films of the mineral oxides of titania, alumina, hafnia, and zirconia were produced by atomic layer deposition (ALD) with low roughness. We find that the surface strongly influences the admicelle organization on the surface. At high concentrations (2 × cmc) of cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB), the surfactant aggregates on a titania surface exhibit a flattened admicelle structure with an average repeat distance of 8.0 ± 1.0 nm whereas aggregates on alumina substrates exhibit a larger admicelle with an average separation distance of 10.5 ± 1.0 nm. A wormlike admicelle structure with an average separation distance of 7.0 ± 1.0 nm can be observed on zirconia substrates whereas a bilayered aggregate structure on hafnia substrates was observed. The change in the surface aggregate structure can be related to an increase in the critical packing parameter through a reduction in the effective headgroup area of the surfactant. The templating strength of the surfaces are found to be hafnia > alumina > zirconia > titania. Weakly templating surfaces are expected to have superior biocompatibility.

A systematic investigation of quaternary ammonium ions as asymmetric phase-transfer catalysts. Application of quantitative structure activity/selectivity relationships

Although the synthetic utility of asymmetric phase-transfer catalysis continues to expand, the number of proven catalyst types and design criteria remains limited. At the origin of this scarcity is a lack in understanding of how catalyst structural features affect the rate and enantioselectivity of phase transfer catalyzed reactions. Described in this paper is the development of quantitative structure-activity relationships (QSAR) and -selectivity relationships (QSSR) for the alkylation of a protected glycine imine with libraries of quaternary ammonium ion catalysts. Catalyst descriptors including ammonium ion accessibility, interfacial adsorption affinity, and partition coefficient were found to correlate meaningfully with catalyst activity. The physical nature of the descriptors was rationalized through differing contributions of the interfacial and extraction mechanisms to the reaction under study. The variation in the observed enantioselectivity was rationalized employing a comparative molecular field analysis (CoMFA) using both the steric and electrostatic fields of the catalysts. A qualitative analysis of the developed model reveals preferred regions for catalyst binding to afford both configurations of the alkylated product.