Shear-induced phase separation in polyelectrolyte/mixed micelle coacervates

Stochastic kinetic theory applied to coarse-grained polymer model

A stochastic field theory approach is applied to a coarse-grained polymer model that will enable studies of polymer behavior under non-equilibrium conditions. This article is focused on the validation of the new model in comparison with explicit Langevin equation simulations under conditions with analytical solutions. The polymers are modeled as Hookean dumbbells in one dimension, without including hydrodynamic interactions and polymer-polymer interactions. Stochastic moment equations are derived from full field theory. The accuracy of the field theory and moment equations is quantified using autocorrelation functions. The full field theory is only accurate for a large number of polymers due to keeping track of rare occurrences of polymers with a large stretch. The moment equations do not have this error because they do not explicitly track these configurations. The accuracy of both methods depends on the spatial degree of discretization. The timescale of decorrelation over length scales bigger than the spatial discretization is accurate, while there is an error over the scale of single mesh points.

Interaction of Low Molecular Weight Poly(diallyldimethylammonium chloride) and Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate in Low Surfactant-Polyelectrolyte Ratio, Salt-Free Solutions

Coacervation is widely used in formulations to induce a beneficial character to the formulation, but nonequilibrium effects are often manifest. Electrophoretic NMR (eNMR), pulsed-gradient spin-echo NMR (PGSE-NMR), and small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) have been used to quantify the interaction between low molecular cationic poly(diallyldimethylammonium chloride) (PDADMAC) and the anionic surfactant sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) in aqueous solution as a model for the precursor state to such nonequilibrium processes. The NMR data show that, within the low surfactant concentration one-phase region, an increasing surfactant concentration leads to a reduction in the charge on the polymer and a collapse of its solution conformation, attaining minimum values coincident with the macroscopic phase separation boundary. Interpretation of the scattering data reveals how the rodlike polymer changes over the same surfactant concentration window, with no discernible fingerprint of micellar type aggregates, but rather with the emergence of disklike and lamellar structures. At the highest surfactant concentration, the emergence of a weak Bragg peak in both the polymer and surfactant scattering suggests these precursor disk and lamellar structures evolve into paracrystalline stacks which ultimately phase separate. Addition of the nonionic surfactant hexa(ethylene glycol) monododecyl ether (C₁₂E₆) to the system seems to have little effect on the PDADMAC/SDS interaction as determined by NMR, merely displacing the observed behavior to lower SDS concentrations, commensurate with the total SDS present in the system. In other words, PDADMAC causes the disruption of the mixed SDS/C₁₂E₆ micelle, leading to SDS-rich PDADAMC/surfactant complexes coexisting with C₁₂E₆-rich micelles in solution.

Lower Critical Solution Temperature-Driven Self-Coacervation of Nonionic Polyester Underwater Adhesives

To enable attachment to underwater surfaces, aquatic fauna such as mussels and sandcastle worms utilize the advantages of coacervation to deliver concentrated protein-rich adhesive cocktails in an aqueous environment onto underwater surfaces. Recently, a mussel adhesive protein Mfp-3s, was shown to exhibit a coacervation-based adhesion mechanism. Current synthetic strategies to mimic Mfp-3s often involve complexation of oppositely charged polymers. Such complex coacervates are more sensitive to changes in pH and salt, thereby limiting their utility to narrow ranges of pH and ionic strength. In this study, by taking advantage of the lower critical solution temperature-driven coacervation, we have created mussel foot protein-inspired, tropoelastin-like, bioabsorbable, nonionic, self-coacervating polyesters for the delivery of photo-cross-linkable adhesives underwater and to overcome the challenges of adhesion in wet or underwater environments. We describe the rationale for their design and the underwater adhesive properties of these nonionic adhesives. Compared to previously reported coacervate adhesives, these "charge-free" polyesters coacervate in wide ranges of pH (3-12) and ionic strength (0-1 M NaCl) and rapidly (<300 s) adhere to substrates submerged underwater. The study introduces smart materials that mimic the self-coacervation and environmental stability of Mfp-3s and demonstrate the potential for biological adhesive applications where high water content, salts, and pH changes can be expected.

Fission and Internal Fusion of Protocell with Membraneless "Organelles" Formed by Liquid-Liquid Phase Separation

Construction of protocells with hierarchical structures and living functions is still a great challenge. Growing evidence demonstrates that the membraneless organelles, which facilitate many essential cellular processes, are formed by RNA, protein, and other biopolymers via liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS). The formation of the protocell in the early days of Earth could follow the same principle. In this work, we develop a novel coacervate-based protocell containing membraneless subcompartments via spontaneous liquid-liquid phase separation by simply mixing single-stranded oligonucleotides (ss-oligo), quaternized dextran (Q-dextran), and poly(l-lysine) (PLL) together. The resulting biphasic droplet, with PLL/ss-oligo phase being the internal subcompartments and Q-dextran/ss-oligo phase as the surrounding medium, is capable of sequestering and partitioning biomolecules into distinct regions. When the droplet is exposed to salt or Dextranase, the surrounding Q-dextran/ss-oligo phase will be gradually dissociated, resulting in the chaotic movement and fusion of internal subcompartments. Besides, the external electric field at a lower strength can drive the biphasic droplet to undergo a deviated circulation concomitant with the fusion of localized subcompartments, while a high-strength electric field can polarize the whole droplet, resulting in the release of daughter droplets in a controllable manner. Our study highlights that liquid-liquid phase separation of biopolymers is a powerful strategy to construct hierarchically structured protocells resembling the morphology and functions of living cells and provides a step toward a better understanding of the transition mechanism from nonliving to living matter under prebiotic conditions.

Study of the complex coacervation mechanism between ovalbumin and the strong polyanion PSSNa: influence of temperature and pH

We studied the complex between ovalbumin and long flexible poly-(sodium 4-styrene sulfonate) as a function of pH and temperature. We used various techniques [turbidimetry, conductometry, dynamic light scattering, viscosimetry, and ultra-small-angle light scattering (USALS)] to fully characterize the coacervate complex. Different phases of complexation versus temperature were determined by turbidimetric analysis (pH_c, pH_ϕ1, and pH_ϕ2). The optimal protein/polyelectrolyte interaction occurred at pH_opt 4. An increase in temperature made the hydrophobic interactions more favorable in the case of the soluble complex and complex coacervation phases (pH > pH_ϕ2). We systematically determined the activation energy to follow the conformational changes of the complex at different temperatures. At pH_opt, the size of the formed complex showed a remarkable decrease with temperature increase. USALS was used to determine simultaneously the radius of gyration (R_g) and fractal dimension D_f of the coacervate.

Creation of New Functions by Combination of Surfactant and Polymer - Complex Coacervation with Oppositely Charged Polymer and Surfactant for Shampoo and Body Wash

The combination of polymers and surfactants is an important means to create various functions in recent detergents and personal care products. In particular, detergents mixing oppositely charged anionic surfactants and cationic polymers induce coacervation by the dilution of the washing and rinsing process, and the complexes effectively adsorb onto surfaces and can change their characteristics. The driving force of the coacervation is electrostatic interaction between the anionic groups of the surfactant and the cationic groups of the polymer. Normally, the coacervation is controlled by selecting the molecular structure or the amount of polymer and surfactant. In shampoo and body wash compositions, we studied the complex precipitation (CP) regions and the morphology and rheological properties of precipitated complexes by focusing on the number of ionic groups in the anionic surfactants and cationic polymers, the mixed electrolyte and the ionic strength as a whole. This clarified the factors related to complex functions. For coacervation in shampoo based on alkyl ethoxylate sulfate (AES), the degree of cationization of the cationic cellulose (CC) and coexisting electrolyte greatly contributed to these functions. In a combination of moderately cationically charged CC and AES mixed amphoteric surfactant, the precipitated complexes became a loose mesh-like morphology, which was also formed when the charge shielding effect was enhanced by adding electrolyte. The precipitated complexes with a looser mesh-like morphology gave a smooth texture to the hair surface during rinsing.On the other hand, for coacervation in body wash based on fatty acid salt, the complexes were effectively precipitated in a combination with a synthetic polymer, poly diallyldimethylammonium chloride (PDADMAC), which has a higher cationic charge than CC. The precipitated complexes had high adsorbability onto skin and contributed to a moisturizing effect by lowering transepidermal water loss (TEWL).In this review, we introduce the controllable factors of coacervation in shampoo and body wash systems by focusing on the relationship between dilution processes and precipitation behavior.

Polyelectrolyte-micelle coacervates: intrapolymer-dominant vs. interpolymer-dominant association, solute uptake and rheological properties

The effects of polyelectrolyte charge density, polyelectrolyte-to-surfactant ratio, and micelle species on coacervation were studied by turbidity, dynamic light scattering, and zeta potential measurements to examine the coacervation of the weak polyelectrolyte branched polyethylenimine (BPEI) and oppositely charged sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) micelles as well as BPEI and mixed micelles composed of SDS and poly(ethylene glycol) 4-nonylphenyl 3-sulfopropyl ether potassium salt (PENS). The results of dynamic light scattering and zeta potential measurements are discussed in terms of pH and BPEI-to-surfactant ratio. An intrapolymer-dominant to interpolymer-dominant association model for the BPEI-micelle coacervates was proposed based on the variation of size and zeta potential of coacervate particles by their BPEI-to-surfactant ratio. The partition coefficient of solutes into BPEI-micelle coacervates was determined using UV-vis measurements as a function of pH, BPEI-to-surfactant ratio, and mixed micelle composition. Both the hydrophobicity of solutes and micelles, as well as the association mode of coacervates, impact the solute uptake efficiency. Dynamic rheological measurements on the coacervates suggest that the rheological properties of the complex coacervates are impacted by the association mode of the coacervates as well as the charge density on BPEI chains during coacervation.

Review on plant protein-polysaccharide complex coacervation, and the functionality and applicability of formed complexes

Controlling the interactions between plant proteins and polysaccharides can lead to the development of novel electrostatic complexed structures that can give unique functionality. This in turn can broaden the diversity of applications that they may be suitable for. Overwhelmingly in the literature, work and reviews relating to coacervation have involved the use of animal proteins. However, with the increasing demand for plant-based protein alternatives by industry and consumers, a greater understanding of how they interact with polysaccharides is essential to control structure, functionality and applicability. This review discusses the factors governing the nature of protein-polysaccharide interactions, their functional attributes and industrial applications, with special attention given to plant proteins. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.

Complex coacervation in charge complementary biopolymers: Electrostatic versus surface patch binding

In this review, a number of systems are described to demonstrate the effect of polyelectrolyte chain stiffness (persistence length) on the coacervation phenomena, after we briefly review the field. We consider two specific types of complexation/coacervation: in the first type, DNA is used as a fixed substrate binding to flexible polyions such as gelatin A, bovine serum albumin and chitosan (large persistence length polyelectrolyte binding to low persistence length biopolymer), and in the second case, different substrates such as gelatin A, bovine serum albumin, and chitosan were made to bind to a polyion gelatin B (low persistence length substrate binding to comparable persistence length polyion). Polyelectrolyte chain flexibility was found to have remarkable effect on the polyelectrolyte-protein complex coacervation. The competitive interplay of electrostatic versus surface patch binding (SPB) leading to associative interaction followed by complex coacervation between these biopolymers is elucidated. We modelled the SPB interaction in terms of linear combination of attractive and repulsive Coulombic forces with respect to the solution ionic strength. The aforesaid interactions were established via a universal phase diagram, considering the persistence length of polyion as the sole independent variable.

Solvent hydrophobicity induced complex coacervation of dsDNA and in situ formed zein nanoparticles

Zein, a predominantly hydrophobic protein, was sustained as a stable dispersion in ethanol-water (80 : 20, % (v/v)) binary solvent at room temperature (25 °C). Addition of aqueous dsDNA solution (1% (w/v)) to the above dispersion prepared with the protein concentration of C_zein = 0.01-0.5% (w/v) caused a concomitant change in ethanol content from 14-35% (v/v), which in turn generated zein nanoparticles in situ of size 80-120 nm increasing with water content. The subsequent associative interaction between DNA (polyanion; 2000 bps) and the positively charged zein nanoparticles, (at pH = 4) was driven by Coulombic forces, and by the solvent hydrophobicity due to the ethanol content of the binary solvent. Experimentally, two interesting regions of interaction were observed from turbidity, zeta potential, particle sizing, and viscosity data: (i) for C_zein < 0.2% (w/v), zein nanoparticles of size 80 nm bind to dsDNA (primary complex) causing its condensation (apparent hydrodynamic size decreased from ≈2100 to 560 nm), and (ii) for 0.2% < C_zein < 0.5% (w/v) larger nanoparticles (>80 nm) were selectively bound to primary complexes to form partially charge neutralized interpolymer soluble complexes (secondary complexes), followed by complex coacervation. During this process, there was depletion of water in the vicinity of the nucleic acid, which was replaced by hydration provided by the ethanol-water binary solvent. Equilibrium coacervate samples were probed for their microstructure by small angle neutron scattering, and for their viscoelastic properties by rheology. The interplay of solvent hydrophobicity, electrostatic interaction, and zein nanoparticle size dependent charge neutralization had a commensurate effect on this hitherto unexplored coacervation phenomenon.

Heteroprotein Complex Formation of Bovine Lactoferrin and Pea Protein Isolate: A Multiscale Structural Analysis

Associative electrostatic interactions between two oppositely charged globular proteins, lactoferrin (LF) and pea protein isolate (PPI), the latter being a mixture of vicilin, legumin, and convicilin, was studied with a specific PPI/LF molar ratio at room temperature. Structural aspects of the electrostatic complexes probed at different length scales were investigated as a function of pH by means of different complementary techniques, namely, with dynamic light scattering, small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), turbidity measurements, and atomic force microscopy (AFM). Irrespective of the applied techniques, the results consistently displayed that complexation between LF and PPI did occur. In an optimum narrow range of pH 5.0-5.8, a viscous liquid phase of complex coacervate was obtained upon mild centrifugation of the turbid LF-PPI mixture with a maximum Rh, turbidity and the ζ-potential being close to zero observed at pH 5.4. In particular, the SAXS data demonstrated that the coacervates were densely assembled with a roughly spherical size distribution exhibiting a maximum extension of ∼80 nm at pH 5.4. Equally, AFM image analysis showed size distributions containing most frequent cluster sizes around 40-80 nm with spherical to elliptical shapes (axis aspect ratio ≤ 2) as well as less frequent elongated to chainlike structures. The most frequently observed compact complexes, we identify as mainly leading to LF-PPI coacervation, whereas for the less frequent chain-like aggregates, we hypothesize that additionally PPI-PPI facilitated complexes exist.

Recent progress of the characterization of oppositely charged polymer/surfactant complex in dilution deposition system

A mixture of oppositely charged polymer and surfactants changes the solubilized state, having a complex precipitation region at the composition of electric neutralization. This complex behavior has been applied to surface modification in the fields of health care and cosmetic products such as conditioning shampoos, as a dilution-deposition system in which the polymer/surfactant mixture at the higher surfactant concentration precipitates the insoluble complex by dilution. A large number of studies over many years have revealed the basic coacervation behavior and physicochemical properties of complexes. However, the mechanism by which a precipitated complex performs surface modification is not well understood. The precipitation region and the morphology of precipitated complex that are changed by molecular structure and additives affect the performance. Hydrophilic groups such as the EO unit in polymers and surfactants, the mixing of nonionic or amphoteric surfactant and nonionic polymer, and the addition of low polar solvent influence the complex precipitation region. Furthermore, the morphology of precipitated complex is formed by crosslinking and aggregating among polymers in the dilution process, and characterizes the performance of products. The polymer chain density in precipitated complex is determined by the charges of both the polymer and surfactant micelle and the conformation of polymer. As a result, the morphology of precipitated complexes is changed from a closely packed film to looser meshes, and/or to small particles, and it is possible for the morphology to control the rheological properties and the amount of adsorbed silicone. In the future, further investigation of the relationships between the morphology and performance is needed.

Molecular and structural basis of low interfacial energy of complex coacervates in water

Complex coacervate refers to a phase-separated fluid, typically of two oppositely charged polyelectrolytes in solution, representing a complex fluid system that has been shown to be of essential interest to biological systems, as well as for soft materials processing owing to the expectation of superior underwater coating or adhesion properties. The significance and interest in complex coacervate fluids critically rely on its low interfacial tension with respect to water that, in turn, facilitates the wetting of macromolecular or material surfaces under aqueous conditions, provided there is attractive interaction between the polyelectrolyte constituents and the surface. However, the molecular and structural bases of these properties remain unclear. Recent studies propose that the formation of water-filled and bifluidic sponge-like nanostructured network, driven by the tuning of electrostatic interactions between the polyelectrolyte constituents or their complexes may be a common feature of complex coacervate fluids that display low fluid viscosity and low interfacial tension, but more studies are needed to verify the generality of these observations. In this review, we summarize representative studies of interfacial tension and ultrastructures of complex coacervate fluids. We highlight that a consensus property of the complex coacervate fluid is the observation of high or even bulk-like water dynamics within the dense complex coacervate phase that is consistent with a low cohesive energy fluid. Our own studies on this subject are enabled by the application of magnetic resonance relaxometry methods relying on spin labels tethered to polyelectrolyte constituents or added as spin labeled probe molecules that partition into the dense versus the equilibrium coacervate phase, permitting the extraction of information on local polymer dynamics, polymer packing and local water dynamics. We conclude with a snapshot of our current perspective on the molecular and structural bases of the low interfacial tension of complex coacervate fluids.

Linear viscoelasticity of complex coacervates

Rheology is a powerful method for material characterization that can provide detailed information about the self-assembly, structure, and intermolecular interactions present in a material. Here, we review the use of linear viscoelastic measurements for the rheological characterization of complex coacervate-based materials. Complex coacervation is an electrostatically and entropically-driven associative liquid-liquid phase separation phenomenon that can result in the formation of bulk liquid phases, or the self-assembly of hierarchical, microphase separated materials. We discuss the need to link thermodynamic studies of coacervation phase behavior with characterization of material dynamics, and provide parallel examples of how parameters such as charge stoichiometry, ionic strength, and polymer chain length impact self-assembly and material dynamics. We conclude by highlighting key areas of need in the field, and specifically call for the development of a mechanistic understanding of how molecular-level interactions in complex coacervate-based materials affect both self-assembly and material dynamics.

Mussel Coating Protein-Derived Complex Coacervates Mitigate Frictional Surface Damage

The role of friction in the functional performance of biomaterial interfaces is widely reckoned to be critical and complicated but poorly understood. To better understand friction forces, we investigated the natural adaptation of the holdfast or byssus of mussels that live in high-energy surf habitats. As the outermost covering of the byssus, the cuticle deserves particular attention for its adaptations to frictional wear under shear. In this study, we coacervated one of three variants of a key cuticular component, mussel foot protein 1, mfp-1 [(1) Mytilus californianus mcfp-1, (2) rmfp-1, and (3) rmfp-1-Dopa], with hyaluronic acid (HA) and investigated the wear protection capabilities of these coacervates to surfaces (mica) during shear. Native mcfp-1/HA coacervates had an intermediate coefficient of friction (μ ∼0.3) but conferred excellent wear protection to mica with no damage from applied loads, F_⊥, as high as 300 mN (pressure, P, > 2 MPa). Recombinant rmfp-1/HA coacervates exhibited a comparable coefficient of friction (μ ∼0.3); however, wear protection was significantly inferior (damage at F_⊥ > 60 mN) compared with that of native protein coacervates. Wear protection of rmfp-1/HA coacervates increased 5-fold upon addition of the surface adhesive group 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine, (Dopa). We propose a Dopa-dependent wear protection mechanism to explain the differences in wear protection between coacervates. Our results reveal a significant untapped potential for coacervates in applications that require adhesion, lubrication, and wear protection. These applications include artificial joints, contact lenses, dental sealants, and hair and skin conditioners.

The aggregation behavior of cellulose micro/nanoparticles in aqueous media

Cellulose micro/nanoparticles were obtained from cotton microcrystalline cellulose. The effect of ionic strength on the aggregation behavior of the cellulose micro/nanoparticles in aqueous media has been investigated by means of rheo-SALS.

Fine-tuning the nonequilibrium behavior of oppositely charged macromolecule/surfactant mixtures via the addition of nonionic amphiphiles

The various commercial applications of oppositely charged polyelectrolytes (P) and ionic surfactants (S) with added nonionic amphiphiles initiated intensive research on the polyion/mixed surfactant interaction. A large group of earlier studies revealed that one of the major effects of the nonionic cosurfactants is the suppression of the associative phase separation of P/S systems. In contrast, recent studies indicated that in the dilute surfactant concentration range the added uncharged amphiphile enhances the precipitation concentration range. In order to rationalize these observations, the mixtures of poly(diallyldimethylammonium chloride) (PDADMAC), sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), and dodecyl maltoside (C12G2) are investigated using a variety of experimental methods. It is shown that the nonionic cosurfactant has two distinct and competing impacts on the mixed surfactant binding onto the polyions. The composition dependent variation of the chemical potentials of the amphiphiles determines which of these effects is the dominant one, explaining the seemingly diverse earlier observations and their interpretations. We also demonstrate that the nonionic amphiphile affects considerably the nonequilibrium features of polyion/ionic surfactant complexation. Namely, the presence of the uncharged surfactant can destabilize the colloidal dispersion of P/S nanoparticles formed in the two-phase composition range. However, at the same concentration range highly stable dispersions of polyion/mixed surfactant nanoparticles can be produced through the application of a new two-step solution preparation technique. This method is based on the order of addition effect of the two surfactants which can be utilized in future scientific and industrial applications.

Three-phase interactions and interfacial transport phenomena in coacervate/oil/water systems

Complex coacervation is an associative liquid/liquid phase separation resulting in the formation of two liquid phases: a polymer-rich coacervate phase and a dilute continuous solvent phase. In the presence of a third liquid phase in the form of disperse oil droplets, the coacervate phase tends to wet the oil/water interface. This affinity has long been known and used for the formation of core/shell capsules. However, while encapsulation by simple or complex coacervation has been used empirically for decades, there is a lack of a thorough understanding of the three-phase wetting phenomena that control the formation of encapsulated, compound droplets and the role of the viscoelasticity of the biopolymers involved. In this contribution, we review and discuss the interplay of wetting phenomena and fluid viscoelasticity in coacervate/oil/water systems from the perspective of colloid chemistry and fluid dynamics, focusing on aspects of rheology, interfacial tension measurements at the coacervate/solvent interface, and on the formation and fragmentation of three-phase compound drops.

The impact of nonionic surfactant additives on the nonequilibrium association between oppositely charged polyelectrolytes and ionic surfactants

The effect of uncharged surfactant additives on the oppositely charged polyion/ionic surfactant complexation is usually described as a direct equilibrium association between the polyelectrolyte molecules and free mixed micelles analogous to the polyion/colloidal particle interactions. This approach predicts that the binding of the ionic surfactant to the polyelectrolyte molecules can be completely suppressed by increasing the nonionic-to-ionic surfactant ratio. In the present work, it is shown that the addition of nonionic surfactants to poly(diallyldimethylammonium chloride)/sodium dodecyl sulfate mixtures considerably enhances the binding of the anionic surfactant to the polycation in the dilute surfactant concentration regime. The dynamic light scattering, turbidity, electrophoretic mobility and fluorescence spectroscopic measurements are consistent with the synergic binding of the ionic and nonionic surfactants to the polyelectrolyte molecules. The enhanced surfactant binding could be utilized for the preparation of stable colloidal dispersions of novel polyion/mixed surfactant nanoparticles over a wide composition range provided that adequate mixing protocols are used. These results clearly indicate that the nonionic surfactant additives can be successfully used to tune the nonequilibrium association of oppositely charged macromolecules and amphiphiles.

Shear-induced structures and thickening in fumed silica slurries

Chemical mechanical polishing (CMP) is an essential technology used in the semiconductor industry to polish and planarize a variety of materials for the fabrication of microelectronic devices (e.g., computer chips). During the high shear (~1,000,000 s(-1)) CMP process, it is hypothesized that individual slurry particles are driven together to form large agglomerates (≥0.5 μm), triggering a shear thickening effect. These shear-induced agglomerates are believed to cause defects during polishing. In this study, we examined the shear thickening of a 25 wt % fumed silica slurry with 0.17 M added KCl using in situ small-angle light scattering during rheological characterization (rheo-SALS). The salt-adjusted slurry displays a ~3-fold increase in viscosity at a critical shear rate of 20,000 s(-1) during a stepped shear rate ramp from 100 to 25,000 s(-1). As the shear rate is reduced back to 100 s(-1), the slurry displays irreversible thickening behavior with a final viscosity that is 100-times greater than the initial viscosity. Corresponding rheo-SALS images indicate the formation of micrometer scale structures (2-3 μm) that directly correlate with the discontinuous and irreversible shear thickening behavior of the fumed silica slurry; these micrometer scale structures are 10-times the nominal particle diameter (~0.2 μm). The scattering patterns from the 25 wt % slurry were corroborated through rheo-SALS examination of 27 and 29 wt % slurries (C(KCl) = 0.1 M). All slurries, regardless of ionic strength and solids loading, display scattering patterns that are directly associated with the observed thickening behavior. Scattering was only observable during and after thickening (i.e., no scattering was detected in the absence of thickening). This work serves as the first in situ observation of micrometer scale structures within the fumed silica CMP slurry while under shear.

Association of poly(4-hydroxystyrene)-block-poly(ethylene oxide) in aqueous solutions: block copolymer nanoparticles with intermixed blocks

Association behavior of diblock copolymer poly(4-hydroxystyrene)-block-poly(ethylene oxide) (PHOS-PEO) in aqueous solutions and solutions in water/tetrahydrofuran mixtures was studied by static, dynamic, and electrophoretic light scattering, (1)H NMR spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and cryogenic field-emission scanning electron microscopy. It was found that, in alkaline aqueous solutions, PHOS-PEO can form compact spherical nanoparticles whose size depends on the preparation protocol. Instead of a core/shell structure with segregated blocks, the PHOS-PEO nanoparticles have intermixed PHOS and PEO blocks due to hydrogen bond interaction between -OH groups of PHOS and oxygen atoms of PEO and are stabilized electrostatically by a fraction of ionized PHOS units on the surface.

Protein/polysaccharide complexes and coacervates in food systems

Since the pioneering work of Bungenberg de Jong and co-workers on gelatin-acacia gum complex coacervation in the 1920-40s, protein/polysaccharide complexes and coacervates have received increasing research interest in order to broaden the possible food applications. This review focuses on the main research streams followed in this field during the last 12 years regarding: i) the parameters influencing the formation of complexes and coacervates in protein-polysaccharide systems; ii) the characterization of the kinetics of phase separation and multi-scale structure of the complexes and coacervates; and iii) the investigation of the functional properties of complexes and coacervates in food applications. This latter section encompasses various technological aspects, namely: the viscosifying and gelling ability, the foaming and emulsifying ability and finally, the stabilization and release of bioactives or sensitive compounds.

Complexation and coacervation of polyelectrolytes with oppositely charged colloids

Polyelectrolyte-colloid coacervation could be viewed as a sub-category of complex coacervation, but is unique in (1) retaining the structure and properties of the colloid, and (2) reducing the heterogeneity and configurational complexity of polyelectrolyte-polyelectrolyte (PE-PE) systems. Interest in protein-polyelectrolyte coacervates arises from preservation of biofunctionality; in addition, the geometric and charge isotropy of micelles allows for better comparison with theory, taking into account the central role of colloid charge density. In the context of these two systems, we describe critical conditions for complex formation and for coacervation with regard to colloid and polyelectrolyte charge densities, ionic strength, PE molecular weight (MW), and stoichiometry; and effects of temperature and shear, which are unique to the PE-micelle systems. The coacervation process is discussed in terms of theoretical treatments and models, as supported by experimental findings. We point out how soluble aggregates, subject to various equilibria and disproportionation effects, can self-assemble leading to heterogeneity in macroscopically homogeneous coacervates, on multiple length scales.

Multiphase adhesive coacervates inspired by the Sandcastle worm

Water-borne, underwater adhesives were created by complex coacervation of synthetic copolyelectrolytes that mimic the proteins of the natural underwater adhesive of the sandcastle worm. To increase bond strengths, we created a second polymer network within cross-linked coacervate network by entrapping polyethylene glycol diacrylate (PEG-dA) monomers in the coacervate phase. Simultaneous polymerization of PEG-dA and cross-linking of the coacervate network resulted in maximum shear bond strengths of ∼1.2 MPa. Approximately 40% of the entrapped PEG-dA polymerized based on attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The monomer-filled coacervate had complex flow behavior, thickening at low shear rates and then thinning suddenly with a 16-fold drop in viscosity at shear rates near 6 s(-1). The microscale structure of the complex coacervates resembled a three-dimensional porous network of interconnected tubules. The sharp shear thinning behavior is conceptualized as a structural reorganization between the interspersed phases of the complex coacervate. The bond strength and complex fluid behavior of the monomer-filled coacervates have important implications for medical applications of the adhesives.