Reflexive Interfaces of Poly(trimethylene carbonate)-Based Polymers: Enzymatic Degradation and Selective Adsorption

2,2-Bis(hydroxymethyl) propionic acid based cyclic carbonate monomers and their (co)polymers as advanced materials for biomedical applications

Designing grafted biodegradable polymers with tailored multi-functional properties is one of the most researched fields with extensive biomedical applications. Among many biodegradable polymers, polycarbonates have gained much attention due to their ease of synthesis, high drug loading, and excellent biocompatibility profiles. Among various monomers, 2,2-bis(hydroxymethyl) propionic acid (bis-MPA) derived cyclic carbonate monomers have been extensively explored in terms of their synthesis as well as their polymerization. Since the late 90s, significant advancements have been made in the design of bis-MPA derived cyclic carbonate monomers as well as in their reaction schemes. Currently, bis-MPA derived polycarbonates have taken a form of an entire platform with a multitude of applications, the latest being in the field of nanotechnology, targeted drug, and nucleic acid delivery. The present review outlines an up to date developments that have taken place in the last two decades in the design, synthesis, and biomedical applications of bis-MPA derived cyclic carbonates and their (co)polymers.

Synthetic macromolecules as therapeutics that overcome resistance in cancer and microbial infection

Synthetic macromolecular antimicrobials have shown efficacy in the treatment of multidrug resistant (MDR) pathogens. These synthetic macromolecules, inspired by Nature's antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), mitigate resistance by disrupting microbial cell membrane or targeting multiple intracellular proteins or genes. Unlike AMPs, these polymers are less prone to degradation by proteases and are easier to synthesize on a large scale. Recently, various studies have revealed that cancer cell membrane, like that of microbes, is negatively charged, and AMPs can be used as anticancer agents. Nevertheless, efforts in developing polymers as anticancer agents has remained limited. This review highlights the recent advancement in the development of synthetic biodegradable antimicrobial polymers (e.g. polycarbonates, polyesters and polypeptides) and anticancer macromolecules including peptides and polymers. Additionally, strategies to improve their in vivo bioavailability and selectivity towards bacteria and cancer cells are examined. Lastly, future perspectives, including use of artificial intelligence or machine learning, in the development of antimicrobial and anticancer macromolecules are discussed.

Delivering the Messenger: Advances in Technologies for Therapeutic mRNA Delivery

mRNA has broad potential as a therapeutic. Current clinical efforts are focused on vaccination, protein replacement therapies, and treatment of genetic diseases. The clinical translation of mRNA therapeutics has been made possible through advances in the design of mRNA manufacturing and intracellular delivery methods. However, broad application of mRNA is still limited by the need for improved delivery systems. In this review, we discuss the challenges for clinical translation of mRNA-based therapeutics, with an emphasis on recent advances in biomaterials and delivery strategies, and we present an overview of the applications of mRNA-based delivery for protein therapy, gene editing, and vaccination.

Monoether-Tagged Biodegradable Polycarbonate Preventing Platelet Adhesion and Demonstrating Vascular Cell Adhesion: A Promising Material for Resorbable Vascular Grafts and Stents

We developed a biodegradable polycarbonate that demonstrates antithrombogenicity and vascular cell adhesion via organocatalytic ring-opening polymerization of a trimethylene carbonate (TMC) analogue bearing a methoxy group. The monoether-tagged polycarbonate demonstrates a platelet adhesion property that is 93 and 89% lower than those of poly(ethylene terephthalate) and polyTMC, respectively. In contrast, vascular cell adhesion properties of the polycarbonate are comparable to those controls, indicating a potential for selective cell adhesion properties. This difference in the cell adhesion property is well associated with surface hydration, which affects protein adsorption and denaturation. Fibrinogen is slightly denatured on the monoether-tagged polycarbonate, whereas fibronectin is highly activated to expose the RGD motif for favorable vascular cell adhesion. The surface hydration, mainly induced by the methoxy side chain, also contributes to slowing the enzymatic degradation. Consequently, the polycarbonate exhibits decent blood compatibility, vascular cell adhesion properties, and biodegradability, which is promising for applications in resorbable vascular grafts and stents.

Synthesis of Polycarbonates and Poly(ether carbonate)s Directly from Carbon Dioxide and Diols Promoted by a Cs2CO3/CH2Cl2 System

Recently, polycarbonates have attracted considerable research interest because of their potential biodegradability and sustainability. Here, we present a direct route for the synthesis of polycarbonates and poly(ether carbonate)s from carbon dioxide (CO₂) and diols, promoted by Cs₂CO₃ and CH₂Cl₂ under 1 atm of CO₂. Quantitative conversion of diols and polymers with up to 11 kg/mol molecular weight could be obtained. While benzylic diols lead to predominantly carbonate linkage, aliphatic diols result in the incorporation of the methylene unit of CH₂Cl₂ that produces poly(ether carbonate)s. Both primary and secondary diols have been successfully incorporated into the polymer chain.

Poly(trimethylene carbonate)/Poly(malic acid) Amphiphilic Diblock Copolymers as Biocompatible Nanoparticles

Amphiphilic polycarbonate-poly(hydroxyalkanoate) diblock copolymers, namely, poly(trimethylene carbonate) (PTMC)-b-poly(β-malic acid) (PMLA), are reported for the first time. The synthetic strategy relies on commercially available catalysts and initiator. The controlled ring-opening polymerization (ROP) of trimethylene carbonate (TMC) catalyzed by the organic guanidine base 1,5,7-triazabicyclo[4.4.0]dec-5-ene (TBD), associated with iPrOH as an initiator, provided iPrO-PTMC-OH, which served as a macroinitiator in the controlled ROP of benzyl β-malolactonate (MLABe) catalyzed by the neodymium triflate salt (Nd(OTf)3). The resulting hydrophobic iPrO-PTMC-b-PMLABe-OH copolymers were then hydrogenolyzed into the parent iPrO-PTMC-b-PMLA-OH copolymers. A range of well-defined copolymers, featuring different sizes of segments (Mn,NMR up to 9300 g mol(-1) ; ÐM =1.28-1.40), were thus isolated in gram quantities, as evidenced by NMR spectroscopy, size exclusion chromatography, thermogravimetric analysis, differential scanning calorimetry, and contact angle analyses. Subsequently, PTMC-b-PMLA copolymers with different hydrophilic weight fractions (11-75 %) self-assembled in phosphate-buffered saline upon nanoprecipitation into well-defined nano-objects with Dh =61-176 nm, a polydispersity index <0.25, and a negative surface charge, as characterized by dynamic light scattering and zeta-potential analyses. In addition, these nanoparticles demonstrated no significant effect on cell viability at low concentrations, and a very low cytotoxicity at high concentrations only for PTMC-b-PMLA copolymers exhibiting hydrophilic fractions over 47 %, thus illustrating the potential of these copolymers as promising nanoparticles.

Tunable drug-loading capability of chitosan hydrogels with varied network architectures

Advanced bioactive systems with defined macroscopic properties and spatio-temporal sequestration of extracellular biomacromolecules are highly desirable for next generation therapeutics. Here, chitosan (CT) hydrogels were prepared with neutral or negatively charged cross-linkers in order to promote selective electrostatic complexation with charged drugs. CT was functionalized with varied dicarboxylic acids, such as tartaric acid, poly(ethylene glycol) bis(carboxymethyl) ether, 1,4-phenylenediacetic acid and 5-sulfoisophthalic acid monosodium salt (PhS), whereby PhS was hypothesized to act as a simple mimetic of heparin. Attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy showed the presence of CO amide I, N-H amide II and CO ester bands, providing evidence of covalent network formation. The cross-linker content was reversely quantified by proton nuclear magnetic resonance on partially degraded network oligomers, so that 18 mol.% PhS was exemplarily determined. Swellability (SR: 299 ± 65-1054 ± 121 wt.%), compressibility (E: 2.1 ± 0.9-9.2 ± 2.3 kPa), material morphology and drug-loading capability were successfully adjusted based on the selected network architecture. Here, hydrogel incubation with model drugs of varied electrostatic charge, i.e. allura red (AR, doubly negatively charged), methyl orange (MO, negatively charged) or methylene blue (MB, positively charged), resulted in direct hydrogel-dye electrostatic complexation. Importantly, the cationic compound, MB, showed different incorporation behaviours, depending on the electrostatic character of the selected cross-linker. In light of this tunable drug-loading capability, these CT hydrogels would be highly attractive as drug reservoirs towards e.g. the fabrication of tissue models in vitro.

Gel formation driven by tunable hydrophobic domain: design of acrylamide macromonomer with oligo hydrophobic segment

Nowadays, biomaterials with amphiphilic properties are undergoing remarkable development. Here, we present one such development, in which we prepared amphiphilic graft copolymers, with a main chain composed of hydroxyethyl acrylamide (HEAA), to introduce hydrophilicity, and a side chain composed of poly(trimethylene carbonate) (PTMC) to introduce tunable hydrophobicity. These macromonomers were created with a novel molecular design, which introduced a ring-opening polymerization by the hydroxyl end group of HEAA in the presence of 1,8-diazabicyclo[5.4.0]undec-7-ene, and were analyzed by (1)H NMR and gel permeation chromatography. The amphiphilic graft copolymers were shown to form a hydrogel, the swelling ratio of which was greatly influenced by the number of trimethylene carbonate units. These copolymers also exhibited the Tyndall phenomenon in aqueous solution; they aggregated spontaneously due to hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions, and a sodium 8-anilino-1-naphthalenesulfonate (ANS) fluorescence probe was introduced into the hydrophobic domain. The solution property of ANS in the polymer solution was analyzed by fluorescence measurement and (1)H NMR. The maximum fluorescence wavelength of ANS shifted to shorter wavelengths as the degree of polymerization of the hydrophobic PTMC, the composition of the macromonomer, and the concentration of the copolymer increased. The resulting copolymer formed a polymer micelle structure due to the tunable hydrophobic domain formation in selected solvents. Therefore, these amphiphilic graft copolymers containing a PTMC segment are excellent candidates for use as hydrophobic drug delivery carriers.

Biodegradable nanostructures with selective lysis of microbial membranes

Macromolecular antimicrobial agents such as cationic polymers and peptides have recently been under an increased level of scrutiny because they can combat multi-drug-resistant microbes. Most of these polymers are non-biodegradable and are designed to mimic the facially amphiphilic structure of peptides so that they may form a secondary structure on interaction with negatively charged microbial membranes. The resulting secondary structure can insert into and disintegrate the cell membrane after recruiting additional polymer molecules. Here, we report the first biodegradable and in vivo applicable antimicrobial polymer nanoparticles synthesized by metal-free organocatalytic ring-opening polymerization of functional cyclic carbonate. We demonstrate that the nanoparticles disrupt microbial walls/membranes selectively and efficiently, thus inhibiting the growth of Gram-positive bacteria, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and fungi, without inducing significant haemolysis over a wide range of concentrations. These biodegradable nanoparticles, which can be synthesized in large quantities and at low cost, are promising as antimicrobial drugs, and can be used to treat various infectious diseases such as MRSA-associated infections, which are often linked with high mortality.

Facile fabrication of diblock methoxy poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(tetramethylene carbonate) and its self-assembled micelles as drug carriers

AB type diblock methoxy poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(tetramethylene carbonate) (mPEG-PTeMC) copolymers were designed for the first time and used as carriers for the sustained release of the hydrophobic drug ibuprofen. In this paper, we developed a facile ring-opening polymerization (ROP) method to prepare mPEG-PTeMC copolymers under the catalysis of Novozym-435 lipase. Attractively, the polymerization has been successfully performed at 30 degrees C, close to room temperature. The data show that the copolymer compositions agree well with the feed ratio of TeMC to mPEG, indicating the controllable feature of the polymerization. The copolymer structures were characterized by (1)H NMR, IR, SEC, and DSC measurements. mPEG-PTeMC exhibits no apparent in vitro cytotoxicity toward human embryonic kidney transformed 293T cells. Those amphiphilic copolymers can readily self-assemble into nanosized micelles (about 150 nm) in aqueous solution. Their critical micelle concentrations are in the range of (1.6-9.3) x 10(-7) mol/L, determined by fluorescence spectroscopy. The micelles present high stability in PBS solution, with no obvious change in micelle diameters over 5 days. Ibuprofen can be loaded effectively in mPEG-PTeMC micelles, and its sustained release behavior is observed. Transmission electron microscopy shows that the well-dispersed spherical micelles are around 25 nm in diameter, while the diameter is 30 nm after loading ibuprofen. The release rate increases when the chain length of the PTeMC block decreases. These properties show that the micelles self-assembled from mPEG-PTeMC copolymers would have great potential as carriers for the effective encapsulation as well as sustained release of hydrophobic drugs.