Construction of Polypseudorotaxane from Low-Molecular Weight Monomers via Dual Noncovalent Interactions

Responsive Supramolecular Polymers for Diagnosis and Treatment

Stimuli-responsive supramolecular polymers are ordered nanosized materials that are held together by non-covalent interactions (hydrogen-bonding, metal-ligand coordination, π-stacking and, host-guest interactions) and can reversibly undergo self-assembly. Their non-covalent nature endows supramolecular polymers with the ability to respond to external stimuli (temperature, light, ultrasound, electric/magnetic field) or environmental changes (temperature, pH, redox potential, enzyme activity), making them attractive candidates for a variety of biomedical applications. To date, supramolecular research has largely evolved in the development of smart water-soluble self-assemblies with the aim of mimicking the biological function of natural supramolecular systems. Indeed, there is a wide variety of synthetic biomaterials formulated with responsiveness to control and trigger, or not to trigger, aqueous self-assembly. The design of responsive supramolecular polymers ranges from the use of hydrophobic cores (i.e., benzene-1,3,5-tricarboxamide) to the introduction of macrocyclic hosts (i.e., cyclodextrins). In this review, we summarize the most relevant advances achieved in the design of stimuli-responsive supramolecular systems used to control transport and release of both diagnosis agents and therapeutic drugs in order to prevent, diagnose, and treat human diseases.

Photoresponsive Supramolecular Polymers: From Light-Controlled Small Molecules to Smart Materials

Photoresponsive supramolecular polymers are well-organized assemblies based on highly oriented and reversible noncovalent interactions containing photosensitive molecules as (co-)monomers. They have attracted increasing interest in smart materials and dynamic systems with precisely controllable functions, such as light-driven soft actuators, photoresponsive fluorescent anticounterfeiting and light-triggered electronic devices. The present review discusses light-activated molecules used in photoresponsive supramolecular polymers with their main photo-induced changes, e.g., geometry, dipole moment, and chirality. Based on these distinct changes, supramolecular polymers formed by light-activated molecules exhibit photoresponsive disassembly and reassembly. As a consequence, photo-induced supramolecular polymerization, "depolymerization," and regulation of the lengths and topologies are observed. Moreover, the light-controlled functions of supramolecular polymers, such as actuation, emission, and chirality transfer along length scales, are highlighted. Furthermore, a perspective on challenges and future opportunities is presented. Besides the challenge of moving from harmful UV light to visible/near IR light avoiding fatigue, and enabling biomedical applications, future opportunities include light-controlled supramolecular actuators with helical motion, light-modulated information transmission, optically recyclable materials, and multi-stimuli-responsive supramolecular systems.

Rigid Polymer Network-Based Autonomous Photoswitches Working in the Solid State Encoded by Room-Temperature Phosphorescence

Autonomous molecular switches with self-recoverability are of great theoretical and experimental interest since they can avoid additional chemical or energy imposition during the working process. Due to the high energy barrier, however, the solid state is generally unfavorable for materials to exhibit the autonomous switch behavior. To promote the practical usage of the autonomous molecular switch, herein, we propose a prototype of an autonomous photoswitch that can work in the solid state based on a rigid polymer network. A hexacarboxylic sodium-modified hexathiobenzene compound was employed as a photoexcitation-driven unit, which can undergo molecular aggregation upon irradiation because of the distinct conformational difference between the ground state and the photoexcited state. Then, we selected a relatively rigid polymer named poly(dimethyldiallylammonium)chloride (PDDA) to complex with the hexacarboxylic sodium-modified hexathiobenzene through electrostatic coupling. Through optimization, the photoexcitation-controlled molecular aggregation and its self-recovery can work well in the solid matrix of PDDA under rhythmical photoirradiation. This process can be easily encoded by a self-recoverable room-temperature phosphorescence, featuring an excellent performance of the autonomous switch.

Supramolecular metallacyclic hydrogels with tunable strength switched by host–guest interactions

A new family of supramolecular hydrogels with tunable strength was successfully constructed through a combination of coordination-driven self-assembly, post-assembly polymerization and host–guest interactions.

Preparation of a mechanically interlocked polymer from a linear supramolecular polymer

We transformed a linear supramolecular polymer into a mechanically interlocked polymer by photoisomerization.

LCST behavior controlled by size-matching selectivity from low molecular weight monomer systems

LCST behavior was controlled by crown ether–cation recognition motifs via size-matching selectivity.

Host-guest chemistry in two-dimensional supramolecular networks

Nanoporous supramolecular networks physisorbed on solid surfaces have been extensively used to immobilize a variety of guest molecules. Host-guest chemistry in such two-dimensional (2D) porous networks is a rapidly expanding field due to potential applications in separation technology, catalysis and nanoscale patterning. Diverse structural topologies with high crystallinity have been obtained to capture molecular guests of different sizes and shapes. A range of non-covalent forces such as hydrogen bonds, van der Waals interactions, coordinate bonds have been employed to assemble the host networks. Recent years have witnessed a surge in the activity in this field with the implementation of rational design strategies for realizing controlled and selective guest capture. In this feature article, we review the development in the field of surface-supported host-guest chemistry as studied by scanning tunneling microscopy (STM). Typical host-guest architectures studied on solid surfaces, both under ambient conditions at the solution-solid interface as well as those formed at the ultrahigh vacuum (UHV)-solid interface, are described. We focus on isoreticular host networks, hosts functionalized pores and dynamic host-guest systems that respond to external stimuli.

The fabrication of amphiphilic double dynamers for responsive Pickering emulsifiers

Xylene-in-water Pickering emulsion stabilized by polymer particles that were fabricated by the self-assembly of amphiphilic double dynamers showed temperature- and pH-responsive demulsification feature.

A multi-stimuli responsive metallosupramolecular polypseudorotaxane gel constructed by self-assembly of a pillar[5]arene-based pseudo[3]rotaxane via zinc ion coordination and its application for highly sensitive fluorescence recognition of metal ions

A novel pillar[5]arene-based metallosupramolecular polypseudorotaxane gel has been successfully prepared.

One-, two-, and three-dimensional hierarchical self-assembly of non-amphiphilic low-entropy chains from nanotubes to nanoribbons and porous net-sheets

The association of some small molecules such as benzene and phthalimide with non-amphiphilic homopolymeric low-entropy chains such as PVAc, PVA, PVP, and PNIPAM has been realized by reversible addition–fragmentation chain transfer reaction (RAFT) method.

Polypseudorotaxane Constructed from Cationic Polymer with Cucurbit[7]uril for Controlled Antibacterial Activity

This letter is aimed to develop a general strategy to fabricate polypseudorotaxanes with controlled antibacterial activity based on cationic polymers. As a proof of concept, the commercially available antibacterial cationic polymer, ε-poly-l-lysine hydrochloride, was chosen for the demonstration. Using host-guest chemistry, cucurbit[7]uril (CB[7]), a water-soluble macrocyclic host, was employed to bind with the positive charge and hydrophobic component on ε-poly-l-lysine hydrochlorides for antibacterial regulation. In this way, by tuning the ratio of CB[7] to the cationic polymer, the antibacterial polypseudorotaxane can be obtained, and the antibacterial efficiency can be well tuned from 5% to 100%. This line of research will enrich the field of cationic polymers and polypseudorotaxanes with important functions on precise control over antibacterial activity.

Sequential Block Copolymer Self-Assemblies Controlled by Metal-Ligand Stoichiometry

While numerous efforts have been devoted to developing easy-to-use probes based on block copolymers for detecting analytes due to their advantages in the fields of self-assembly and sensing, a progressive response on block copolymers in response to a continuing chemical event is not readily achievable. Herein, we report the self-assembly of a 4-piperazinyl-1,8-naphthalimide based functional block copolymer (PS-b-PN), whose self-assembly and photophysics can be controlled by the stoichiometry-dependent metal-ligand interaction upon the side chain. The work takes advantages of (1) stoichiometry-controlled coordination-structural transformation of the piperazinyl moiety on PS-b-PN toward Fe(3+) ions, thereby resulting in a shrinkage-expansion conversion of the self-assembled nanostructures in solution as well as in thin film, and (2) stoichiometry-controlled competition between photoinduced electron transfer and spin-orbital coupling process upon naphthalimide fluorophore leading to a boost-decline emission change of the system. Except Fe(3+) ions, such a stoichiometry-dependent returnable property cannot be observed in the presence of other transition ions. The strategy for realizing the dual-channel sequential response on the basis of the progressively alterable nanomorphologies and emissions might provide deeper insights for the further development of advanced polymeric sensors.

Fabrication of a cross-linked supramolecular polymer on the basis of cucurbit[8]uril-based host–guest recognition with tunable AIE behaviors

A photo-responsive cross-linked supramolecular polymer was prepared based on a ternary host–guest molecular recognition motif between cucurbit[8]uril and 1,1-dimethyl-4,4-bipyridinium dication and azobenzene derivative, and its AIE behavior was also investigated.

Cyclodextrin-based ordered rotaxane-monolayers at gold surfaces

Complexation-to-deaggregation effect of cyclodextrin was applied to achieve ordered functional monolayers on a gold surface.

Controllable Supramolecular Polymerization through Host-Guest Interaction and Photochemistry

A new method for controllable supramolecular polymerization based on ABBA type monomer and cucurbit[8]uril monomer through host-guest interaction and photochemistry is reported. The molecular weight and polydispersity of supramolecular polymers can be well controlled by tuning the molar ratio of these host and guest monomers or by tuning the isomer ratio of azobenzene groups in the guest monomers upon the competitive irradiation of lights. This research provides a general methodology for the control of supramolecular polymerization and the structure of supramolecular polymers.

Well-defined nano-sunflowers formed by self-assembly of a rod-coil amphiphile in water and their morphology transformation based on a water-soluble pillar[5]arene

Well-defined nano-sunflowers were constructed by self-assembling a rod-coil amphiphile in water, and their morphologies transformed by addition of a water soluble pillar[5]arene and Ag2O were also investigated.

Functional supramolecular polymers for biomedical applications

As a novel class of dynamic and non-covalent polymers, supramolecular polymers not only display specific structural and physicochemical properties, but also have the ability to undergo reversible changes of structure, shape, and function in response to diverse external stimuli, making them promising candidates for widespread applications ranging from academic research to industrial fields. By an elegant combination of dynamic/reversible structures with exceptional functions, functional supramolecular polymers are attracting increasing attention in various fields. In particular, functional supramolecular polymers offer several unique advantages, including inherent degradable polymer backbones, smart responsiveness to various biological stimuli, and the ease for the incorporation of multiple biofunctionalities (e.g., targeting and bioactivity), thereby showing great potential for a wide range of applications in the biomedical field. In this Review, the trends and representative achievements in the design and synthesis of supramolecular polymers with specific functions are summarized, as well as their wide-ranging biomedical applications such as drug delivery, gene transfection, protein delivery, bio-imaging and diagnosis, tissue engineering, and biomimetic chemistry. These achievements further inspire persistent efforts in an emerging interdisciplin-ary research area of supramolecular chemistry, polymer science, material science, biomedical engineering, and nanotechnology.

Amphiphilic diselenide-containing supramolecular polymers

This communication describes the fabrication of diselenide-containing supramolecular polymers.

Novel pseudo[2]rotaxanes constructed by the self-assembly of dibenzyl tetramethylene bis-carbamate derivatives and per-ethylated pillar[5]arene

Novel pseudo[2]rotaxanes based on per-ethylated pillar[5]arene and neutral guests G1/G7 were successfully constructed. Particularly, the pseudo[2]rotaxane constructed from per-ethylated pillar[5]arene and G7 showed photoresponsive properties.

Supramolecular polymers constructed by orthogonal self-assembly based on host–guest and metal–ligand interactions

This review describes recent progress in the orthogonal construction of supramolecular polymers based on host–guest and metal coordination interactions.

[n]Pseudorotaxanes constructed by a bis(p-phenylene)-34-crown-10-based cryptand: different binding behaviors induced by minor structural changes of guests

Investigation on three pseudorotaxanes based on a cryptand and three viologen derivatives demonstrated that small structural changes of guests could greatly affect the host–guest binding behaviors.

Dual photo- and pH-responsive supramolecular nanocarriers based on water-soluble pillar[6]arene and different azobenzene derivatives for intracellular anticancer drug delivery

Two novel types of supramolecular nanocarriers fabricated by the amphiphilic host-guest inclusion complex formed from water-soluble pillar[6]arene (WP6) and azobenzene derivatives G1 or G2 have been developed, in which G1 is structurally similar to G2 but has an extra phenoxy group in its hydrophobic region. Supramolecular micelles can be initially formed by WP6 with G1, which gradually transform into layered structures with liquid-crystalline properties, whereas stable supramolecular vesicles are obtained from WP6 and G2, which exhibit dual photo- and pH-responsiveness. Notably, the resulting WP6⊃G2 vesicles can efficiently encapsulate anticancer drug mitoxantrone (MTZ) to achieve MTZ-loaded vesicles, which maintain good stability in a simulated normal physiological environment, whereas in an acid environment similar to that of tumor cells or with external UV irradiation, the encapsulated drug is promptly released. More importantly, cytotoxicity assay indicates that such vesicles have good biocompatibility and the MTZ-loaded vesicles exhibit comparable anticancer activity to free MTZ, especially with additional UV stimulus, whereas its cytotoxicity for normal cells was remarkably reduced. Flow cytometric analysis further confirms that the cancer cell death caused by MTZ-loaded vesicles is associated with apoptosis. Therefore, the dual pH- and UV-responsive supramolecular vesicles are a potential platform for controlled release and targeted anticancer drug delivery.

Stimuli-responsive supramolecular polymers in aqueous solution

CONSPECTUS: Aiming to construct various novel supramolecular polymeric structures in aqueous solution beyond small supramolecular self-assembly molecules and develop functional supramolecular polymeric materials, research interest on functional supramolecular polymers has been prevailing in recent years. Supramolecular polymers are formed by bridging monomers or components together via highly directional noncovalent interactions such as hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic interaction, π-π interaction, metal-ligand coordination, electrostatic interaction, and so forth. They can be easily functionalized by employing diverse building components with specific functions besides the traditional polymeric properties, a number of which are responsive to such external stimuli as pH variance, photoirradiation, chemically or electrochemically redox with the controllable conformation or construction switching, polymerization building and rebuilding, and function adjustment reversibly owing to the reversibility of noncovalent interactions. Supramolecular polymers are "soft matters" and can be functionalized with specific properties such as morphology adjustment, controllable luminescence, shape memory, self-healing, and so forth. Supramolecular polymers constructed based on macrocycle recognition and interlocked structures represent one typical branch of the supramolecular polymer family. Cyclodextrin (CD), cucurbituril (CB), and hydrophilic calixarene derivatives are usually employed to construct hydrophilic supramolecular polymers in aqueous solution. Stimuli-responsive hydrophilic supramolecular polymers, constructed in aqueous solution particularly, can be promising candidates for mimicking biocompatible or vital functional materials. This Account mainly focuses on the recent stimuli-responsive supramolecular polymers based on the host-guest interaction in aqueous solution. We describe the hydrophilic supramolecular polymers constructed via hydrophobic effects, electrostatic interaction, metal-ligand coordination, and multiple combinations of the above noncovalent interactions. The disparate ways to engender stimuli-responsive supramolecular polymers via the hydrophobic effects of α-CD, β-CD, and γ-CD macrocycles are illustrated and discussed. Some recent works on CD-based photoresponsive functional supramolecular polymers are summarized. CB (especially CB[8]) based supramolecular polymers and their pH-responsive and photoresponsive properties are introduced. Hydrophilic calixarene derivative (bis(p-sulfonatocalix[4]arene) typically) based supramolecular polymers via electrostatic interactions are reviewed, and their redox-responsive association/disassociation elaborated in detail. More complicate supramolecular polymers based on multiple noncovalent interactions are illustrated including hydrophobic effect, metal-ligand coordination, and electrostatic interactions and their functional stimuli-responsiveness elaborated as well. Finally, we give perspectives on the strength of these diverse noncovalent interactions to form supramolecular polymers in aqueous solution, on the advantage, disadvantage, efficiency, and reversibility of using certain stimuli in constructing supramolecular polymers and prospect the future function improvement of these polymers as functional materials.

Supramolecular polymers constructed from macrocycle-based host-guest molecular recognition motifs

CONSPECTUS: Supramolecular polymers, fabricated via the combination of supramolecular chemistry and polymer science, are polymeric arrays of repeating units held together by reversible, relatively weak noncovalent interactions. The introduction of noncovalent interactions, such as hydrogen bonding, aromatic stacking interactions, metal coordination, and host-guest interactions, endows supramolecular polymers with unique stimuli responsiveness and self-adjusting abilities. As a result, diverse monomer structures have been designed and synthesized to construct various types of supramolecular polymers. By changing the noncovalent interaction types, numbers, or chemical structures of functional groups in these monomers, supramolecular polymeric materials can be prepared with tailored chemical and physical properties. In recent years, the interest in supramolecular polymers has been extended from the preparation of intriguing topological structures to the discoveries of potential applications as functional materials. Compared with traditional polymers, supramolecular polymers show some advantages in the fabrication of reversible or responsive materials. The development of supramolecular polymers also offers a platform to construct complex and sophisticated materials with a bottom-up approach. Macrocylic hosts, including crown ethers, cyclodextrins, calixarenes, cucurbiturils, and pillararenes, are the most commonly used building blocks in the fabrication of host-guest interaction-based supramolecular polymers. With the introduction of complementary guest molecules, macrocylic hosts demonstrate selective and stimuli-responsive host-guest complexation behaviors. By elaborate molecular design, the resultant supramolecular polymers can exhibit diverse structures based on the self-selectivity of host-guest interactions. The introduction of reversible host-guest interactions can further endow these supramolecular polymers with interesting and fascinating chemical/physical properties, including stimuli responsiveness, self-healing, and environmental adaptation. It has been reported that macrocycle-based supramolecular polymers can respond to pH change, photoirradition, anions, cations, temperature, and solvent. Macrocycle-based supramolecular polymers have been prepared in solution, in gel, and in the solid state. Furthermore, the solvent has a very important influence on the formation of these supramolecular polymers. Crown ether- and pillararene-based supramolecular polymers have mainly formed in organic solvents, such as chloroform, acetone, and acetonitrile, while cyclodextrin- and cucurbituril-based supramolecular polymerizations have been usually observed in aqueous solutions. For calixarenes, both organic solvents and water have been used as suitable media for supramolecular polymerization. With the development of supramolecular chemistry and polymer science, various methods, such as nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, X-ray techniques, electron microscopies, and theoretical calculation and computer simulation, have been applied for characterizing supramolecular polymers. The fabrication of macrocycle-based supramolecular polymers has become a currently hot research topic. In this Account, we summarize recent results in the investigation of supramolecular polymers constructed from macrocycle-based host-guest molecular recognition motifs. These supramolecular polymers are classified based on the different macrocycles used in them. Their monomer design, structure control, stimuli-responsiveness, and applications in various areas are discussed, and future research directions are proposed. It is expected that the development of supramolecular polymers will not only change the way we live and work but also exert significant influence on scientific research.

Dynamic supramolecular complexes constructed by orthogonal self-assembly

CONSPECTUS: Supramolecular complexes, including various low-molecular-mass structures and large molecular aggregates that are assembled by reversible and highly directional noncovalent interactions, have attracted more and more attention due to their fascinating and unconventional chemical and physical properties that are different from those of traditional architectures encountered by covalently linked backbones. Supramolecular complexes are by nature dynamic architectures considering the reversibility of noncovalent interactions by which small molecular monomers can assemble into specific architectures that are able to be repeatably reorganized through the assembly/disassembly processes under certain environmental factors such as temperature, concentration, and solvent conditions. The construction of supramolecular complexes by orthogonal self-assembly with different types of highly specific, noninterfering interactions is currently attracting considerable interest since they not only can dynamically self-assemble, but also can be tuned by various external stimuli through addressing each type of noncovalent interaction separately. Therefore, these dynamic supramolecular complexes, especially with external responsiveness, represent the most outstanding candidates for the future development of functional and smart materials, and even mimic the assembling process of natural systems. In this Account, we will summarize the recent advances of dynamic supramolecular complexes constructed by orthogonal self-assembly in soluiton in two sections: (1) Construction strategies for supramolecular complexes based on orthogonal self-assembly, whose dynamic behaviors with external responsiveness were not experimentally investigated but potentially existed due to the intrinsic reversibility of noncovalent bonds; (2) dynamic behaviors of multiresponsive supramolecular complexes, which were experimentally reported to exhibit reversible multi-responsiveness to external stimuli. Dynamic nature is one of intrinsic properties of supramolecular complexes constructed by self-assembly. Therefore, in the first section, we will describe the dynamic self-assembly in the construction of supramolecular complexes, but will focus on their external responsive dynamic behaviors in the second section. In addition, considering that an increasing number of supramolecular complexes constructed by biological building blocks through bio-orthogonal assembly as mimics of biological systems have been reported in recent years, in the second section we will also present some typical examples on such special dynamic biological supramolecular complexes. The final part of this Account is devoted to foreseeing the rapid development of dynamic supramolecular complexes toward applications in functional and smart materials and fundamental questions facing dynamic supramolecular complexes in the future.

A polymeric chain extension driven by HSCT interaction

In this paper, targeting a high-molecular-weight supramolecular polymer, chain extension of low-molecular-weight polymers (LMWPs) is achieved via the HSCT (Host-Stabilized Charge Transfer) of CB[8] (cucurbit[8]uril).

Responsive cross-linked supramolecular polymer network: hierarchical supramolecular polymerization driven by cryptand-based molecular recognition and metal coordination

A cation responsive cross-linked supramolecular polymer network (CSPN) with better material properties than that of a linear supramolecular polymer was constructed through hierarchical supramolecular polymerization driven by cryptand-based molecular recognition and metal coordination.

A responsive supramolecular polymer formed by orthogonal metal-coordination and cryptand-based host–guest interaction

A cation responsive linear supramolecular polymer was constructed by unifying the themes of coordination-driven self-assembly and cryptand-based molecular recognition in a hierarchical orthogonal fashion.

Supramolecular polymerization of supramonomers: a way for fabricating supramolecular polymers

This communication describes a new method of fabricating supramolecular polymers through supramolecular polymerization of supramonomers.