Chain Arrangement and Glass Transition Temperature Variations in Polymer Nanoparticles under 3D-Confinement

Tracing the slow Arrhenius process deep in the glassy state-quantitative evaluation of the dielectric relaxation of bulk samples and thin polymer films in the temperature domain

The slow Arrhenius process (SAP) is a dielectric mode connected to thermally activated equilibration mechanisms, allowing for a fast reduction in free energy in liquids and glasses. The SAP, however, is still poorly understood, and so far, this process has mainly been investigated at temperatures above the glass transition. By employing a combination of methods to analyze dielectric measurements under both isochronal and isothermal conditions, we were able to quantitatively reproduce the dielectric response of the SAP of different polymers and to expand the experimental regime over which this process can be observed down to lower temperatures, up to 70 K below the glass transition. Employing thin films of thicknesses varying between 10 and 800 nm, we further verified that the peak shape and activation energy of the SAP of poly(4-bromostyrene) are not sensitive to temperature, nor do they vary upon confinement at the nanoscale level. These observations confirm the preliminary trends reported for other polymers. We find that one single set of parameters-meaning the activation barrier and the pre-exponential factor, respectively, linked to the enthalpic and entropic components of the process-can describe the dynamics of the SAP in both the supercooled liquid and glassy states, in bulk and thin films. These results are discussed in terms of possible molecular origins of the slow Arrhenius process in polymers.

1D-Confinement Inhibits the Anomaly in Secondary Relaxation of a Fluorinated Polymer

We present an experimental study of the dynamics of a well-pronounced secondary relaxation observed in bulk and ultrathin films of the fluorinated copolymer poly(vinylidene fluoride-co-hexafluoropropylene) (PVdF-HFP). In proximity to the glass transition, an anomalous phenomenon is observed: the β-relaxation slows down upon heating. Measurements as a function of the film thickness show that this exceptional behavior gradually vanishes upon confinement at the nanoscale level. Regardless of sample size, the relaxation dynamics could be described in terms of the Minimal Model via an asymmetric double well potential. Supported by a structural investigation of surfaces and interfaces, our results reveal that the presence of adsorbing walls induces an increase in glass transition temperature, which counterbalances the asymmetry in the double well potential responsible for molecular motion.

Preparation, Physical Properties, and Applications of Water-Based Functional Polymer Inks

In this study, water-based functional polymer inks are prepared using different solvent displacement methods, in particular, polymer functional inks based on semiconducting polymer poly(3-hexylthiophene) and the ferroelectric polymer poly(vinylidene fluoride) and its copolymers with trifluoroethylene. The nanoparticles that are included in the inks are prepared by miniemulsion, as well as flash and dialysis nanoprecipitation techniques and we discuss the properties of the inks obtained by each technique. Finally, an example of the functionality of a semiconducting/ferroelectric polymer coating prepared from water-based inks is presented.

Formation of unexpected S-S covalent bonds in H2S dimers under confinement

The present work investigates the effect of confinement on the hydrogen bonding interactions in H2S dimers. The interiors of different sized fullerenes (C60, C70, C84, and C120) have been used to model the effect of confinement. It was found that as the degree of confinement increases, the hydrogen bonding between H2S molecules disappears and sulphur-sulphur interactions appear. We obtained clear computational evidence that, inside C60, the H2S dimer is bound by a covalent bond between two sulphur atoms. It was also found that the strength of the S-S bond inside fullerenes is linked to the amount of charge transfer from the H2S dimer to the fullerene.

Switching of the reaction enthalpy from exothermic to endothermic for decomposition of H2CO3 under confinement

Various size fullerenes (C₆₀, C₇₀ and C₈₄) have been used as a means of confinement to study the decomposition reaction of carbonic acid alone as well as in the presence of a single water molecule in a confined environment. Quantum chemical calculations reveal that as the effect of confinement increases by reducing the size of the fullerene cage, the bare reaction switches from exothermic to endothermic gradually. As a result, the equilibrium of the reaction shifts toward the reactant side, which suggests that the decomposition of carbonic acid becomes thermodynamically disfavored under confinement. In the presence of a single water molecule inside the C₈₄ fullerene cage, the barrier height of unimolecular decomposition is found to be decreased by ∼2.1 kcal mol^-1 as compared to the gas phase reaction. Besides the effect of confinement, we have also studied the pressure dependency of and the effect of an external electric field on the title reaction. By parameterizing the behavior of the system inside the fullerene in terms of pressure, we have shown that the fullerene cage can act as a high pressure container for this reaction. Our investigations also reveal that, similar to confinement, an external electric field could also switch the reaction from exothermic to endothermic in nature.

Raising glass transition temperature of polymer nanofilms as a function of negative interface energy

Based on a thermodynamic approach, glass transition temperature (T_g) of substrate-supported polymer nanofilms (s-PNFs) is investigated for carbon-chain polymers, taking the role of the interface energy into consideration.

Direct observation of polymer surface mobility via nanoparticle vibrations

Measuring polymer surface dynamics remains a formidable challenge of critical importance to applications ranging from pressure-sensitive adhesives to nanopatterning, where interfacial mobility is key to performance. Here, we introduce a methodology of Brillouin light spectroscopy to reveal polymer surface mobility via nanoparticle vibrations. By measuring the temperature-dependent vibrational modes of polystyrene nanoparticles, we identify the glass-transition temperature and calculate the elastic modulus of individual nanoparticles as a function of particle size and chemistry. Evidence of surface mobility is inferred from the first observation of a softening temperature, where the temperature dependence of the fundamental vibrational frequency of the nanoparticles reverses slope below the glass-transition temperature. Beyond the fundamental vibrational modes given by the shape and elasticity of the nanoparticles, another mode, termed the interaction-induced mode, was found to be related to the active particle-particle adhesion and dependent on the thermal behavior of nanoparticles.

How thermal stress alters the confinement of polymers vitrificated in nanopores

Understanding and controlling the glass transition temperature (T_g) and dynamics of polymers in confined geometries are of significance in both academia and industry. Here, we investigate how the thermal stress induced by a mismatch in the coefficient of thermal expansion affects the T_g behavior of polystyrene (PS) nanorods located inside cylindrical alumina nanopores. The size effects and molecular weight dependence of the T_g are also studied. A multi-step relaxation process was employed to study the relationship between thermal stress and cooling rate. At fast cooling rates, the imparted thermal stress would overcome the yield stress of PS and peel chains off the pore walls, while at slow cooling rates, chains are kept in contact with the pore walls due to timely dissipation of the produced thermal stress during vitrification. In smaller nanopores, more PS chains closely contact with pore walls, then stronger internal thermal stress would be generated between core and shell of PS nanorod, which results in a larger deviation between two T_gs. The core part of PS shows lower T_g than bulk value, which can induce faster dynamics in the center region. A complex and important role stress plays is supposed in complex confinement condition, e.g., in nanopores, during vitrification.

Glass transition of polymers in bulk, confined geometries, and near interfaces

When cooled or pressurized, polymer melts exhibit a tremendous reduction in molecular mobility. If the process is performed at a constant rate, the structural relaxation time of the liquid eventually exceeds the time allowed for equilibration. This brings the system out of equilibrium, and the liquid is operationally defined as a glass-a solid lacking long-range order. Despite almost 100 years of research on the (liquid/)glass transition, it is not yet clear which molecular mechanisms are responsible for the unique slow-down in molecular dynamics. In this review, we first introduce the reader to experimental methodologies, theories, and simulations of glassy polymer dynamics and vitrification. We then analyse the impact of connectivity, structure, and chain environment on molecular motion at the length scale of a few monomers, as well as how macromolecular architecture affects the glass transition of non-linear polymers. We then discuss a revised picture of nanoconfinement, going beyond a simple picture based on interfacial interactions and surface/volume ratio. Analysis of a large body of experimental evidence, results from molecular simulations, and predictions from theory supports, instead, a more complex framework where other parameters are relevant. We focus discussion specifically on local order, free volume, irreversible chain adsorption, the Debye-Waller factor of confined and confining media, chain rigidity, and the absolute value of the vitrification temperature. We end by highlighting the molecular origin of distributions in relaxation times and glass transition temperatures which exceed, by far, the size of a chain. Fast relaxation modes, almost universally present at the free surface between polymer and air, are also remarked upon. These modes relax at rates far larger than those characteristic of glassy dynamics in bulk. We speculate on how these may be a signature of unique relaxation processes occurring in confined or heterogeneous polymeric systems.