A New Approach to Polymer Self-assembly into Stable Nanoparticles: Poly(ethylacrylic acid) Homopolymers

Fluorescent homopolypeptide toroids

Toroids are important ring-like nanostructures in living systems; intrinsically luminogenic toroids are promising in bioimaging but it is challenging to synthesize such nanoparticles. Herein, we report a fluorescent toroid that...

Ciprofibrate-Loaded Nanoparticles Prepared by Nanoprecipitation: Synthesis, Characterization, and Drug Release

Ciprofibrate (CIP) is a highly lipophilic and poorly water-soluble drug, typically used for dyslipidemia treatment. Although it is already commercialized in capsules, no previous studies report its solid-state structure; thus, information about the correlation with its physicochemical properties is lacking. In parallel, recent studies have led to the improvement of drug administration, including encapsulation in polymeric nanoparticles (NPs). Here, we present CIP's crystal structure determined by PXRD data. We also propose an encapsulation method for CIP in micelles produced from Pluronic P123/F127 and PEO-b-PCL, aiming to improve its solubility, hydrophilicity, and delivery. We determined the NPs' physicochemical properties by DLS, SLS, ELS, SAXS and the loaded drug amount by UV-Vis spectroscopy. Micelles showed sizes around 10-20 nm for Pluronic and 35-45 nm for the PEO-b-PCL NPs with slightly negative surface charge and successful CIP loading, especially for the latter; a substantial reduction in ζ-potential may be evidenced. For Pluronic nanoparticles, we scanned different conditions for the CIP loading, and its encapsulation efficiency was reduced while the drug content increased in the nanoprecipitation protocol. We also performed in vitro release experiments; results demonstrate that probe release is driven by Fickian diffusion for the Pluronic NPs and a zero-order model for PEO-b-PCL NPs.

pH-Responsive Micellar Nanoassemblies from Water-Soluble Telechelic Homopolymers Endcoding Acid-Labile Middle-Chain Groups in Their Hydrophobic Sequence-Defined Initiator Residue

A middle-chain cleavable telechelic poly(oligoethylene glycol) methyl ether acrylate) (MCCT-POEGA-Br) was synthesized by single-electron transfer living radical polymerization (SET-LRP) initiated from an acetal-containing hydrophobic sequence-defined difunctional initiator. In aqueous medium, above a certain concentration, this hydrophilic homopolymer self-assembled into nanogel-like large micelles that exhibit an encapsulating capacity for both hydrophobic and hydrophilic cargo. The sequence-defined cleavage pattern encoded in the initiator residue allowed precise middle-chain cleavage, leading to quantitative disassembly of the corresponding nanoobjects. Dye release studies performed in an acidic environment demonstrated the potential of this new design concept in the preparation of pH-responsive nanocarriers. In addition, fluorescently tagged nanoassemblies could also be obtained via the thio-bromo "click" modification of MCCT-POEGA-Br prior to self-assembly. This strategy may provide facile access to a diversity of multistimuli-responsive nanocarriers based on commercially available hydrophilic monomers and sequence-defined difunctional initiators synthesized by this simple design strategy.

Effect of salt valency and concentration on structure and thermodynamic behavior of anionic polyelectrolyte Na+-polyethacrylate aqueous solution

The intermolecular structure and solvation enthalpy of anionic polyelectrolyte atactic Na⁺-polyethacrylate (PEA) in aqueous solution, as a function of added salt concentration C _s (dilute to concentrated) and valency (NaCl versus CaCl₂), were investigated via molecular dynamics simulations with explicit-ion-solvent and atomistic polymer description. An increase in C _s leads to a decrease in α, which stabilizes to a constant value beyond critical C _s. A significant reduction in R _g in the presence of CaCl₂ salt was observed, due to ion bridging of PEA by Ca²⁺ ions, in agreement with results available in literature on other similar polycarboxylates. An increase in salt valency reduces the value of critical C _s for the onset of stabilization of the overall size and shape of the polymer chain. The critical C _s ratio for the divalent to monovalent salt case is in excellent agreement with results of Langevin dynamics studies on model systems available in the literature. PEA-water H-bond half-life increases with C _s for CaCl₂, but no appreciable effect is seen for NaCl. The hydration of PEA becomes stronger in the presence of divalent salt. The strength of H-bond interaction energy is greater for cations as compared to anions of the salt. The salt cation effect in displacing water molecules from the vicinity of PEA, with increase in C _s, is greater for NaCl solution. The decrease in water coordination to PEA carboxylate groups, due to increased C _s, is more pronounced in NaCl solution. The nature of the behavior of the solvation enthalpy of PEA and the type of intermolecular interactions contributing to it, is in agreement with experimental observations from the literature. The hydration enthalpy of PEA in divalent CaCl₂ aqueous salt solution is more exothermic compared to monovalent NaCl salt solution, in agreement with experimental data. The solvation of PEA is thermodynamically more favorable in the case of CaCl₂ solution. The exothermic solvation enthalpy, H-bond lifetime, number of H-bonds and H-bond interaction energy are greater in magnitude in CaCl₂ aqueous solution.

Going beyond the classical amphiphilicity paradigm: the self-assembly of completely hydrophobic polymers into free-standing sheets and hollow nanostructures in solvents of variable quality

Self-assembly is well-known to occur in amphiphiles, and the totally hydrophobic ones are never reported to self-assemble. In this work we report for the first time that the latter can self-assemble into free-standing sheets and hollow spheres in toluene/methanol mixed solvents by modulating the solvent quality. The homopolymers studied in this work are polystyrene (PS), polyphenylacetylene (PPA), and poly(3-hexyl thiophene) (P3HT), representing polymers with different rigidity. All the three form a homogenous solution in toluene, but self-assembly occurs in the toluene/methanol mixed solvents. Micrometer sized free-standing sheets were formed for PS, PPA, and P3HT at methanol volume fractions being 43%, 50%, and 67%, respectively, and hollow spheres were observed for PPA at higher methanol fractions of 75 and 90%. Under the latter solvent conditions, PS forms solid spheres, yet ill-defined aggregates and free-standing sheets coexist in the case of P3HT. This non-solvent induced self-assembly was explained by a delicate balance of two "opposing forces": van der Waals attractive and entropic repulsive forces generated between the segments of these homopolymers within a single chain, between two chains, and among more chains in the solvents of worsened quality.

A novel approach to controlled self-assembly of pH-responsive thermosensitive homopolymer polyelectrolytes into stable nanoparticles

This review addresses the recent research progress in introducing and elaborating a novel approach to controlled polymer self-assembly into stable nanoparticles using pH-responsive thermosensitive homopolymer polyelectrolytes. Interesting aspect of this approach is that stable polymeric nanoparticles are formed from homopolymers of one type only and without any assembly-triggering additives. The process of their formation can be monitored online e.g. by light scattering and particle size can be finely custom tuned. Obtained nanoparticles have interesting properties and are very stable over long periods of time and over a broad range of salt concentrations including physiological conditions. Much effort was devoted not only to finding optimum experimental protocols and to characterizing resulting nanoparticles in detail, but also to understanding physical processes behind these successful protocols.

Efficient Condensation of DNA into Environmentally Responsive Polyplexes Produced from Block Catiomers Carrying Amine or Diamine Groups

The intracellular delivery of nucleic acids requires a vector system as they cannot diffuse across lipid membranes. Although polymeric transfecting agents have been extensively investigated, none of the proposed gene delivery vehicles fulfill all of the requirements needed for an effective therapy, namely, the ability to bind and compact DNA into polyplexes, stability in the serum environment, endosome-disrupting capacity, efficient intracellular DNA release, and low toxicity. The challenges are mainly attributed to conflicting properties such as stability vs efficient DNA release and toxicity vs efficient endosome-disrupting capacity. Accordingly, investigations aimed at safe and efficient therapies are still essential to achieving gene therapy clinical success. Taking into account the mentioned issues, herein we have evaluated the DNA condensation ability of poly(ethylene oxide)113-b-poly[2-(diisopropylamino)ethyl methacrylate]50 (PEO113-b-PDPA50), poly(ethylene oxide)113-b-poly[2-(diethylamino)ethyl methacrylate]50 (PEO113-b-PDEA50), poly[oligo(ethylene glycol)methyl ether methacrylate]70-b-poly[oligo(ethylene glycol)methyl ether methacrylate10-co-2-(diethylamino)ethyl methacrylate47-co-2-(diisopropylamino)ethyl methacrylate47] (POEGMA70-b-P(OEGMA10-co-DEA47-co-DPA47), and poly[oligo(ethylene glycol)methyl ether methacrylate]70-b-poly{oligo(ethylene glycol)methyl ether methacrylate10-co-2-methylacrylic acid 2-[(2-(dimethylamino)ethyl)methylamino]ethyl ester44} (POEGMA70-b-P(OEGMA10-co-DAMA44). Block copolymers PEO113-b-PDEA50 and POEGMA70-b-P(OEGMA10-co-DEA47-co-DPA47) were evidenced to properly condense DNA into particles with a desirable size for cellular uptake via endocytic pathways (R(H) ≈ 65-85 nm). The structure of the polyplexes was characterized in detail by scattering techniques and atomic force microscopy. The isothermal titration calorimetric data revealed that the polymer/DNA binding is endothermic; therefore, the process in entropically driven. The combination of results supports that POEGMA70-b-P(OEGMA10-co-DEA47-co-DPA47) condenses DNA more efficiently and with higher thermodynamic outputs than does PEO113-b-PDEA50. Finally, circular dichroism spectroscopy indicated that the conformation of DNA remained the same after complexation and that the polyplexes are very stable in the serum environment.

How does a tiny terminal alkynyl end group drive fully hydrophilic homopolymers to self-assemble into multicompartment vesicles and flower-like complex particles?

We report an unusual self-assembly behavior driven by a tiny terminal alkynyl end group in fully hydrophilic homopolymers which form multicompartment vesicles and flower-like nanoparticles in aqueous solution.

Self-Assembly Behavior of Thermoresponsive Oligo(ethylene glycol) Methacrylates Random Copolymer

A well-defined random copolymer containing 2-(2-methoxyethoxy) ethyl methacrylate (MEO₂MA, M_n = 188 g/mol) and poly(ethylene glycol) methyl ether methacrylate (PEGMA, M_n = 2080 g/mol) (poly(MEO₂MA-co-PEGMA₂₀₈₀)), M_n = 17300 g/mol) was synthesized using the atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) process, and its thermoresponsive behaviors in aqueous solution were investigated. In comparison to other temperature-sensitive random copolymers based on oligo(ethylene glycol) methacrylates, this copolymer exhibited an unusual thermally induced two-stage aggregation process. The copolymer chains associate at the first thermal transition followed by a rearrangement process at the second thermal transition to produce a stable core-shell micellar structure. The morphology of the micelle comprises of a methacrylate core stabilized by the longer ethylene glycol segments (M_n = 2080 g/mol) shell.

Homopolymer self-assembly into stable nanoparticles: concerted action of hydrophobic association and hydrogen bonding in thermoresponsive poly(alkylacrylic acid)s

A new approach to polymer self-assembly was presented recently [M. Sedlák, Č. Koňák, J. Dybal, Macromolecules 2009, 2, 7430-7438 and 7439-7446.] (1, 2) where stable polymeric nanoparticles were formed from poly(ethylacrylic acid) homopolymers without any assembly triggering additives, simply by heating polymer solution under conditions of thermosensitivity to certain temperature. In the current Article, we present successful results on poly(propylacrylic acid), which is a more hydrophobic polymer. We also present results on a less hydrophobic polymer from this series, poly(methacrylic acid), from which nanoparticles cannot be formed. Comparison of results on all three polymers gives a solid physicochemical insight and supports the molecular mechanism of the self-assembly previously suggested: The solvent quality gradually worsens upon heating of a thermosensitive polymer solution, and polymer-polymer contacts are preferred over polymer-solvent contacts, which leads to the formation of polymer assemblies. The presence of a significant amount of charge on chains prevents macroscopic phase separation. Upon subsequent cooling to laboratory temperature, the assemblies (nanoparticles) should eventually dissolve; however, this is not the case due to the fact that polymer chains brought to a close proximity at elevated temperatures become hydrogen-bonded. In addition, hydrogen bonds strengthen upon cooling. Mainly carboxylic-carboxylate hydrogen bonds (COOH····COO(-)) are responsible for the irreversibility of the process and the stability of nanoparticles. Conclusions are supported by results from static and dynamic light scattering, FTIR spectroscopy, and cryo-TEM microscopy. Size of nanoparticles can be monitored during the growth and custom-tailored by tuning critical parameters, especially the degree of ionization, temperature, and time of heating. Nanoparticles are stable over long periods of time. They are stable in a broad range of salt concentrations, including physiological conditions, and possess a mild acceptable degree of polydispersity.

Association of poly(4-hydroxystyrene)-block-poly(ethylene oxide) in aqueous solutions: block copolymer nanoparticles with intermixed blocks

Association behavior of diblock copolymer poly(4-hydroxystyrene)-block-poly(ethylene oxide) (PHOS-PEO) in aqueous solutions and solutions in water/tetrahydrofuran mixtures was studied by static, dynamic, and electrophoretic light scattering, (1)H NMR spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and cryogenic field-emission scanning electron microscopy. It was found that, in alkaline aqueous solutions, PHOS-PEO can form compact spherical nanoparticles whose size depends on the preparation protocol. Instead of a core/shell structure with segregated blocks, the PHOS-PEO nanoparticles have intermixed PHOS and PEO blocks due to hydrogen bond interaction between -OH groups of PHOS and oxygen atoms of PEO and are stabilized electrostatically by a fraction of ionized PHOS units on the surface.