Enhancement of drug absorption through the blood-brain barrier and inhibition of intercellular tight junction resealing by E-cadherin peptides

Selective Uptake of Macromolecules to the Brain in Microfluidics and Animal Models Using the HAVN1 Peptide as a Blood-Brain Barrier Modulator

Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) possess favorable pharmacokinetic properties, high binding specificity and affinity, and minimal off-target effects, making them promising therapeutic agents for central nervous system (CNS) disorders. However, their development as effective therapeutic and diagnostic agents for brain disorders is hindered by their limited ability to efficiently penetrate the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Therefore, it is crucial to develop efficient delivery methods that enhance the penetration of antibodies into the brain. Previous studies have demonstrated the potential of cadherin-derived peptides (i.e., ADTC5, HAVN1 peptides) as BBB modulators (BBBMs) to increase paracellular porosities for penetration of molecules across the BBB. Here, we test the effectiveness of the leading BBBM peptide, HAVN1 (Cyclo(1,6)SHAVSS), in enhancing the permeation of various monoclonal antibodies through the BBB using both in vitro and in vivo systems. In vitro, HAVN1 has been shown to increase the permeability of fluorescently labeled macromolecules, such as a 70 kDa dextran, 50 kDa Fab1, and 150 kDa mAb1, by 4- to 9-fold in a three-dimensional blood-brain barrier (3D-BBB) microfluidics model using a human BBB endothelial cell line (i.e., hCMEC/D3). HAVN1 was selective in modulating the BBB endothelial cell, compared to the pulmonary vascular endothelial (PVE) cell barrier. Co-administration of HAVN1 significantly improved brain depositions of mAb1, mAb2, and Fab1 in C57BL/6 mice after 15 min in the systemic circulation. Furthermore, HAVN1 still significantly enhanced brain deposition of mAb2 when it was administered 24 h after the administration of the mAb. Lastly, we observed that multiple doses of HAVN1 may have a cumulative effect on the brain deposition of mAb2 within a 24-h period. These findings offer promising insights into optimizing HAVN1 and mAb dosing regimens to control or modulate mAb brain deposition for achieving desired mAb dose in the brain to provide its therapeutic effects.

Peptide-Based Agents for Cancer Treatment: Current Applications and Future Directions

Peptide-based strategies have received an enormous amount of attention because of their specificity and applicability. Their specificity and tumor-targeting ability are applied to diagnosis and treatment for cancer patients. In this review, we will summarize recent advancements and future perspectives on peptide-based strategies for cancer treatment. The literature search was conducted to identify relevant articles for peptide-based strategies for cancer treatment. It was performed using PubMed for articles in English until June 2023. Information on clinical trials was also obtained from ClinicalTrial.gov. Given that peptide-based strategies have several advantages such as targeted delivery to the diseased area, personalized designs, relatively small sizes, and simple production process, bioactive peptides having anti-cancer activities (anti-cancer peptides or ACPs) have been tested in pre-clinical settings and clinical trials. The capability of peptides for tumor targeting is essentially useful for peptide-drug conjugates (PDCs), diagnosis, and image-guided surgery. Immunomodulation with peptide vaccines has been extensively tested in clinical trials. Despite such advantages, FDA-approved peptide agents for solid cancer are still limited. This review will provide a detailed overview of current approaches, design strategies, routes of administration, and new technological advancements. We will highlight the success and limitations of peptide-based therapies for cancer treatment.

Peptide Shuttles for Blood–Brain Barrier Drug Delivery

The blood–brain barrier (BBB) limits the delivery of therapeutics to the brain but also represents the main gate for nutrient entrance. Targeting the natural transport mechanisms of the BBB offers an attractive route for brain drug delivery. Peptide shuttles are able to use these mechanisms to increase the transport of compounds that cannot cross the BBB unaided. As peptides are a group of biomolecules with unique physicochemical and structural properties, the field of peptide shuttles has substantially evolved in the last few years. In this review, we analyze the main classifications of BBB–peptide shuttles and the leading sources used to discover them.

A Historical Review of Brain Drug Delivery

The history of brain drug delivery is reviewed beginning with the first demonstration, in 1914, that a drug for syphilis, salvarsan, did not enter the brain, due to the presence of a blood-brain barrier (BBB). Owing to restricted transport across the BBB, FDA-approved drugs for the CNS have been generally limited to lipid-soluble small molecules. Drugs that do not cross the BBB can be re-engineered for transport on endogenous BBB carrier-mediated transport and receptor-mediated transport systems, which were identified during the 1970s-1980s. By the 1990s, a multitude of brain drug delivery technologies emerged, including trans-cranial delivery, CSF delivery, BBB disruption, lipid carriers, prodrugs, stem cells, exosomes, nanoparticles, gene therapy, and biologics. The advantages and limitations of each of these brain drug delivery technologies are critically reviewed.

Formulation and delivery solutions for the next generation biotherapeutics

In 2018 I was appointed full professor of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology & Delivery at the Pharmaceutics division of the department of Pharmaceutical Sciences at Utrecht University, The Netherlands. In this contribution to the Orations - New Horizons of the Journal of Controlled Release I will introduce my research group (see also www.uu.nl/pharmaceutics) and will highlight my current and future research projects. In coming years the focus of my research will be on the administration of biotherapeutics, aiming to control their fate from the site of injection to the site of action. I will discuss issues related to formulation of biotherapeutics into nanomedicines (NMs), intracellular delivery of nucleic acids as well as protein therapeutics, and targeted delivery of biotherapeutics beyond the liver. In addition, I will provide a forward view on how current developments in the drug delivery and gene therapy field may result in sustainable and cost-effective dosing regimens for biotherapeutics.

Target specific tight junction modulators

Intercellular tight junctions represent a formidable barrier against paracellular drug absorption at epithelia (e.g., nasal, intestinal) and the endothelium (e.g., blood-brain barrier). In order to enhance paracellular transport of drugs and increase their bioavailability and organ deposition, active excipients modulating tight junctions have been applied. First-generation of permeation enhancers (PEs) acted by unspecific interactions, while recently developed PEs address specific physiological mechanisms. Such target specific tight junction modulators (TJMs) have the advantage of a defined specific mechanism of action. To date, merely a few of these novel active excipients has entered into clinical trials, as their lack in safety and efficiency in vivo often impedes their commercialisation. A stronger focus on the development of such active excipients would result in an economic and therapeutic improvement of current and future drugs.

Enhancing Intestinal Absorption of a Model Macromolecule via the Paracellular Pathway using E-Cadherin Peptides

Membrane permeation enhancers have received significant attention in recent years for enabling the oral absorption of poorly permeable drug molecules. In this study, we investigated the ability of His-Ala-Val (HAV) and Ala-Asp-Thr (ADT) peptides derived from the extracellular-1 (EC1) domain of E-cadherin proteins to increase the paracellular permeation and intestinal bioavailability of the poorly permeable model macromolecule, fluorescein-isothiocyanate dextran with average molecular weight 4000 (FD4). The in vitro enzymatic stability of linear and cyclic E-cadherin peptides was characterized under simulated gastric and intestinal conditions, and the cyclic E-cadherin peptides, HAVN1 and ADTC5, which demonstrated excellent stability in vitro, were advanced to in vivo intestinal instillation studies and compared against the established surfactant membrane permeation enhancer, sodium caprate (C₁₀). Cyclic HAVN1 and ADTC5 peptides increased FD4 bioavailability by 7.2- and 4.4-fold compared to control, respectively (not statistically significant). In contrast, C₁₀ provided a statistically significant 10.7-fold relative bioavailability enhancement for FD4. Importantly, this study represents the first report of cyclic E-cadherin peptides as intestinal membrane permeation enhancers. The findings described herein demonstrate the potential of enzymatically stabilized cyclic E-cadherin peptides for increasing poorly permeable drug absorption via the oral route.

Engineered peptide modified hydrogel platform for propagation of human pluripotent stem cells

Human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) have enormous potential to alleviate cell needs for regenerative medicine, however these cells require expansion in cell colonies to maintain cell-cell contact, thus limiting the scalability needed to meet the demands of cell therapy. While the use of a Rho-associated protein kinase (ROCK) inhibitor will allow for culture of single cell hPSCs, typically only 50% of cells are recovered after dissociation. When hPSCs lose cell-cell contact through E-cadherin, dissociation induced apoptosis occurs. In this study, we hypothesized that the extracellular E-cadherin domain of hPSCs will bind to synthetic E-cadherin peptides presented on a hydrogel substrate, mimicking the required cell-cell contact and thereby retaining single-cell viability and clonogenicity. Hence, the objective of this study was to functionalize alginate hydrogels with synthetic peptides mimicking E-cadherin and evaluate peptide performance in promoting cell attachment, viability, maintaining pluripotency, and differentiation potential. We observed that alginate conjugated with synthetic E-cadherin peptides not only supported initial cell attachment with high viability, but also supported hPSC propagation and high fold expansion. hPSCs propagated on the peptide modified substrates maintained the hPSC characteristic pluripotency and differentiation potential, characterized by both spontaneous and directed differentiation. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) have enormous potential to alleviate cell needs for regenerative medicine and cell therapy. However, scalable culture of hPSCs is challenged by its need for maintenance of cell-cell contact, dissociation of which triggers the apoptotic pathway. Hence hPSCs are commonly maintained as colonies over Matrigel coated culture plates. Furthermore, use of xenogenic and undefined Matrigel compromises the translational potential of hPSCs. In this work we have developed a completely defined substrate to enable adherent culture of hPSCs as single cells. This substrate prevents apoptosis of the single cells and allows significant fold expansion of hPSCs while maintaining pluripotency and differentiation potential. The developed substrate is expected to be a cost-effective and translatable alternative to Matrigel.

In Vivo Brain Delivery and Brain Deposition of Proteins with Various Sizes

It is very challenging to develop protein drugs for the treatment of brain diseases; this is due to the difficulty in delivering them into the brain because of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Thus, alternative delivery methods need further exploration for brain delivery of proteins to diagnose and treat brain diseases. Previously, ADTC5 and HAV6 peptides have been shown to enhance the in vivo brain delivery of small- and medium-size molecules across the BBB. This study was carried out to evaluate the ability of ADTC5 and HAV6 peptides to enhance delivery of proteins of various sizes, such as 15 kDa lysozyme, 65 kDa albumin, 150 kDa IgG mAb, and 220 kDa fibronectin, into the brains of C57BL/6 mice. Each protein was labeled with IRdye800CW, and a quantitative method using near IR fluorescence (NIRF) imaging was developed to determine the amount of protein delivered into the brain. ADTC5 peptide significantly enhanced brain delivery of lysozyme, albumin, and IgG mAb but not fibronectin compared to controls. In contrast, HAV6 peptide significantly enhanced the brain delivery of lysozyme but not albumin and IgG mAb. Thus, there is a cutoff size of proteins that can be delivered by each peptide. The distribution of delivered protein in other organs such as liver, spleen, lung, kidney, and heart could be influenced by HAV6 and ADTC5. In summary, ADTC5 is a better BBB modulator than HAV6 in delivering various sizes of proteins into the brain, and the size of the protein affects its brain delivery.

Improving In Vivo Brain Delivery of Monoclonal Antibody Using Novel Cyclic Peptides

Many proteins can be used to treat brain diseases; however, the presence of the blood–brain barrier (BBB) creates an obstacle to delivering them into the brain. Previously, various molecules were delivered through the paracellular pathway of the BBB via its modulation, using ADTC5 and HAV6 peptides. This study goal was to design new cyclic peptides with N-to-C terminal cyclization for better plasma stability and modulation of the BBB. Cyclic HAVN1 and HAVN2 peptides were derived from a linear HAV6 peptide. Linear and N-to-C terminal cyclic ADTHAV peptides were designed by combining the sequences of ADTC5 and HAV6. These novel cyclic peptides were used to deliver an IRdye800CW-labeled IgG monoclonal antibody into the brain. Cyclic HAVN1 and HAVN2 peptides deliver IgG into the brain, while the parent linear HAV6 peptide does not. Cyclic and linear ADTHAV and ADTC5 peptides enhanced brain delivery of IgG mAb, in which cyclic ADTHAV peptide was better than linear ADTHAV (p = 0.07). Cyclic ADTHAV and ADTC5 influenced the distribution of IgG mAb in other organs while HAV6, HAVN1 and HAVN2 did not. In summary, the novel cyclic peptides are generally better BBB modulators than their linear counterparts for delivering IgG mAb into the brain.

Validation of Cadherin HAV6 Peptide in the Transient Modulation of the Blood-Brain Barrier for the Treatment of Brain Tumors

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) poses a major obstacle by preventing potential therapeutic agents from reaching their intended brain targets at sufficient concentrations. While transient disruption of the BBB has been used to enhance chemotherapeutic efficacy in treating brain tumors, limitations in terms of magnitude and duration of BBB disruption exist. In the present study, the preliminary safety and efficacy profile of HAV6, a peptide that binds to the external domains of cadherin, to transiently open the BBB and improve the delivery of a therapeutic agent, was evaluated in a murine brain tumor model. Transient opening of the BBB in response to HAV6 peptide administration was quantitatively characterized using both a gadolinium magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast agent and adenanthin (Ade), the intended therapeutic agent. The effects of HAV6 peptide on BBB integrity and the efficacy of concurrent administration of HAV6 peptide and the small molecule inhibitor, Ade, in the growth and progression of an orthotopic medulloblastoma mouse model using human D425 tumor cells was examined. Systemic administration of HAV6 peptide caused transient, reversible disruption of BBB in mice. Increases in BBB permeability produced by HAV6 were rapid in onset and observed in all regions of the brain examined. Concurrent administration of HAV6 peptide with Ade, a BBB impermeable inhibitor of Peroxiredoxin-1, caused reduced tumor growth and increased survival in mice bearing medulloblastoma. The rapid onset and transient nature of the BBB modulation produced with the HAV6 peptide along with its uniform disruption and biocompatibility is well-suited for CNS drug delivery applications, especially in the treatment of brain tumors.

Metal binding selectivity of an N-terminally free multihistidine peptide HAVAHHH-NH2

For NH₂-HAVAHHH-NH₂ peptide the coordination to internal histidines is preferred for copper(ii), while it is the opposite for nickel(ii).

Glioblastoma Chemoresistance: The Double Play by Microenvironment and Blood-Brain Barrier

For glioblastoma, the tumor microenvironment (TME) is pivotal to support tumor progression and therapeutic resistance. TME consists of several types of stromal, endothelial and immune cells, which are recruited by cancer stem cells (CSCs) to influence CSC phenotype and behavior. TME also promotes the establishment of specific conditions such as hypoxia and acidosis, which play a critical role in glioblastoma chemoresistance, interfering with angiogenesis, apoptosis, DNA repair, oxidative stress, immune escape, expression and activity of multi-drug resistance (MDR)-related genes. Finally, the blood brain barrier (BBB), which insulates the brain microenvironment from the blood, is strongly linked to the drug-resistant phenotype of glioblastoma, being a major physical and physiological hurdle for the delivery of chemotherapy agents into the brain. Here, we review the features of the glioblastoma microenvironment, focusing on their involvement in the phenomenon of chemoresistance; we also summarize recent advances in generating systems to modulate or bypass the BBB for drug delivery into the brain. Genetic aspects associated with glioblastoma chemoresistance and current immune-based strategies, such as checkpoint inhibitor therapy, are described too.

Improving Brain Delivery of Biomolecules via BBB Modulation in Mouse and Rat: Detection using MRI, NIRF, and Mass Spectrometry

There is an urgent need to develop new and alternative methods to deliver functional biomolecules to the brain for diagnosis and treatment of brain diseases. The goal of this study was to evaluate the activity of blood-brain barrier (BBB) modulators (i.e., HAV and ADT peptides) to deliver functional biomolecules (i.e., galbumin, IRdye800cw-cLABL, and cIBR7) to the brains of mice and rats. HAV6, cHAVc3, and ADTC5 peptides but not HAV4 peptide significantly enhanced the brain delivery of 65 kDa galbumin compared to control in Balb/c mice as quantified by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Ten-minute pretreatment with ADTC5 peptide still significantly increased brain delivery of galbumin; however, no enhancement was observed after 10-min pretreatment with HAV6. There was no enhancement of galbumin deposition following 40-min pretreatment with ADTC5 or HAV6, suggesting a short duration of the BBB opening for large molecules. ADTC5 peptide also improved the brain delivery of IRdye800cw-cLABL peptide about 3.5-fold compared to control in Balb/c mice as detected by near infrared fluorescence (NIRF). The BBB modulator activity of ADTC5 to deliver cIBR7 peptide was also evaluated in vivo using Sprague-Dawley rats. The amount of cIBR7 in the brain was detected by LC-MS/MS. ADTC5 peptide enhanced the delivery of cIBR7 peptide into rat brain about 4-fold compared to control and the intact cIBR7 can be efficiently extracted and detected in rat brain. In conclusion, HAV and ADT peptides enhance the brain delivery of functional peptides (e.g., cLABL and cIBR7) and protein (e.g., 65 kDa galbumin) in two animal models, and the duration of the BBB opening for a large molecule (e.g., galbumin) was short.

Blood-brain barrier peptide shuttles

Brain delivery is hampered by the presence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), a natural defence of the brain that protects it and allows the entrance of nutrients by several mechanisms. Taking advantage of these mechanisms is an opportunity to treat brain related diseases. Among the different alternatives, BBB peptide shuttles are gaining attention to increase brain delivery of therapeutics. The most recent advances in the field are analysed here.

Peptides and Drug Delivery

Peptides have been used as drugs to treat various health conditions, and they are also being developed as diagnostic agents. Due to their receptor selectivity, peptides have recently been utilized for drug delivery to target drug molecules to specific types of cells (i.e. cancer cells, immune cells) to lower the side effects of the drugs. In this case, the drug is conjugated to the carrier peptide for directing the drug to the target cells (e.g. cancer cells) with higher expression of a specific receptor that recognizes the carrier peptide. As a result, the drug is directed to the target diseased cells without affecting the normal cells. Peptides are also being developed for improving drug delivery through the intestinal mucosa barrier (IMB) and the blood-brain barrier (BBB). These peptides were derived from intercellular junction proteins such as occludins, claudins, and cadherins and improve drug delivery through the IMB and BBB via the paracellular pathways. It is hypothesized that the peptides modulate protein-protein interactions in the intercellular junctions of the IMB and BBB to increase the porosity of paracellular pathways of the barriers. These modulator peptides have been shown to enhance brain delivery of small molecules and medium-sized peptides as well as a large protein such as 65 kDa albumin. In the future, this method has the potential to improve oral and brain delivery of therapeutic and diagnostic peptides and proteins.

Comparison of Linear and Cyclic His-Ala-Val Peptides in Modulating the Blood-Brain Barrier Permeability: Impact on Delivery of Molecules to the Brain

The aim of this study is to evaluate the effect of peptide cyclization on the blood-brain barrier (BBB) modulatory activity and plasma stability of His-Ala-Val peptides, which are derived from the extracellular 1 domain of human E-cadherin. The activities to modulate the intercellular junctions by linear HAV4 (Ac-SHAVAS-NH2), cyclic cHAVc1 (Cyclo(1,8)Ac-CSHAVASC-NH2), and cyclic cHAVc3 (Cyclo(1,6)Ac-CSHAVC-NH2) were compared in in vitro and in vivo BBB models. Linear HAV4 and cyclic cHAVc1 have the same junction modulatory activities as assessed by in vitro MDCK monolayer model and in situ rat brain perfusion model. In contrast, cyclic cHAVc3 was more effective than linear HAV4 in modulating MDCK cell monolayers and in improving in vivo brain delivery of Gd-DTPA on i.v. administration in Balb/c mice. Cyclic cHAVc3 (t1/2 = 12.95 h) has better plasma stability compared with linear HAV4 (t1/2 = 2.4 h). The duration of the BBB modulation was longer using cHAVc3 (2-4 h) compared with HAV4 (<1 h). Both HAV4 and cHAVc3 peptides also enhanced the in vivo brain delivery of IRdye800cw-PEG (25 kDa) as detected by near IR imaging. The result showed that cyclic cHAVc3 peptide had better activity and plasma stability than linear HAV4 peptide.

Probing the interaction between cHAVc3 peptide and the EC1 domain of E-cadherin using NMR and molecular dynamics simulations

The goal of this work is to probe the interaction between cyclic cHAVc3 peptide and the EC1 domain of human E-cadherin protein. Cyclic cHAVc3 peptide (cyclo(1,6)Ac-CSHAVC-NH₂) binds to the EC1 domain as shown by chemical shift perturbations in the 2D ¹H,-¹⁵N-HSQC NMR spectrum. The molecular dynamics (MD) simulations of the EC1 domain showed folding of the C-terminal tail region into the main head region of the EC1 domain. For cHAVc3 peptide, replica exchange molecular dynamics (REMD) simulations generated five structural clusters of cHAVc3 peptide. Representative structures of cHAVc3 and the EC1 structure from MD simulations were used in molecular docking experiments with NMR constraints to determine the binding site of the peptide on EC1. The results suggest that cHAVc3 binds to EC1 around residues Y36, S37, I38, I53, F77, S78, H79, and I94. The dissociation constants (K_d values) of cHAVc3 peptide to EC1 were estimated using the NMR chemical shifts data and the estimated K_ds are in the range of .5 × 10^-5-7.0 × 10^-5 M.

Brain Delivery of Drug and MRI Contrast Agent: Detection and Quantitative Determination of Brain Deposition of CPT-Glu Using LC-MS/MS and Gd-DTPA Using Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Successful treatment and diagnosis of neurological diseases depend on reliable delivery of molecules across the blood-brain barrier (BBB), which restricts penetration of pharmaceutical drugs and diagnostic agents into the brain. Thus, developing new noninvasive strategies to improve drug delivery across the BBB is critically needed. This study was aimed at evaluating the activity of HAV6 peptide (Ac-SHAVSS-NH2) in improving brain delivery of camptothecin-glutamate (CPT-Glu) conjugate and gadolinium-diethylenetriaminepentaacetate (Gd-DTPA) contrast agent in Sprague-Dawley rats. Brain delivery of both CPT-Glu and Gd-DTPA was evaluated in an in situ rat brain perfusion model in the presence and absence of HAV6 peptide (1.0 mM). Gd-DTPA (0.6 mmol/kg) was intravenously (iv) administered with and without HAV6 peptide (0.019 mmol/kg) in rats. The detection and quantification of CPT-Glu and Gd-DTPA in the brain were carried out by LC-MS/MS and quantitative magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), respectively. Rats perfused with CPT-Glu in combination with HAV6 had significantly higher deposition of drug in the brain compared to CPT-Glu alone. MRI results also showed that administration of Gd-DTPA in the presence of HAV6 peptide led to significant accumulation of Gd-DTPA in various regions of the brain in both the in situ rat brain perfusion and in vivo studies. All observations taken together indicate that HAV6 peptide can disrupt the BBB and enhance delivery of small molecules into the brain.

Enhancing Glioblastoma-Specific Penetration by Functionalization of Nanoparticles with an Iron-Mimic Peptide Targeting Transferrin/Transferrin Receptor Complex

Treatment of glioblastoma (GBM) remains to be the most formidable challenge because of the hindrance of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) along with the poor drug penetration into the glioma parenchyma. Nanoparticulate drug delivery systems (DDS) utilizing transferrin (Tf) as the targeting ligand to target the glioma-associated transferrin receptor (TfR) had met the problem of loss of specificity in biological environment due to the high level of endogenous Tf. Here we conjugated CRT peptide, an iron-mimicry moiety targeting the whole complex of Tf/TfR, to poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(l-lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanoparticles (CRT-NP), to open a new route to overcome such obstacle. High cellular associations, advanced transport ability through the BBB model, and penetration in 3-dimensional C6 glioma spheroids in vitro had preliminarily proved the advantages of CRT-NP over Tf-nanoparticle conjugates (Tf-NP). Compared with Tf-NP, NP, and Taxol, paclitaxel-loaded CRT-NP (CRT-NP-PTX) displayed a superior antiproliferation effect on C6 glioma cells and stronger inhibitory effect on glioma spheroids. Favored pharmacokinetics behavior and enhanced accumulation in glioma foci was observed, together with a much deeper distribution pattern in glioma parenchyma compared with unmodified nanoparticles and Tf-NP. Eventually, mice treated with CRT-NP-PTX showed a remarkably prolonged median survival compared to those treated with Taxol, NP, or Tf-NP. In conclusion, the modification of CRT to nanoparticles holds great promise for enhancement of antiglioma therapy.

Pathways and progress in improving drug delivery through the intestinal mucosa and blood-brain barriers

One of the major hurdles in developing therapeutic agents is the difficulty in delivering drugs through the intestinal mucosa and blood-brain barriers (BBB). The goal here is to describe the general structures of the biological barriers and the strategies to enhance drug delivery across these barriers. Prodrug methods used to improve drug penetration via the transcellular pathway have been successfully developed, and some prodrugs have been used to treat patients. The use of transporters to improve absorption of some drugs (e.g., antiviral agents) has also been successful in treating patients. Other methods, including blocking the efflux pumps to improve transcellular delivery, and modulation of cell-cell adhesion in the intercellular junctions to improve paracellular delivery across biological barriers, are still in the investigational stage.

(1)H, (13)C and (15)N backbone assignment of the EC-1 domain of human E-cadherin

The Extracellular 1 (EC1) domain of E-cadherin has been shown to be important for cadherin-cadherin homophilic interactions. Cadherins are responsible for calcium-mediated cell-cell adhesion located at the adherens junction of the biological barriers (i.e., intestinal mucosa and the blood-brain barrier (BBB)). Cadherin peptides can modulate cadherin interactions to improve drug delivery through the BBB. However, the mechanism of modulating the E-cadherin interactions by cadherin peptides has not been fully elucidated. To provide a basis for subsequent examination of the structure and peptide-binding properties of the EC1 domain of human E-cadherin using solution NMR spectroscopy, the (1)H, (13)C and (15)N backbone resonance of the uniformly labeled-EC1 were assigned and the secondary structure was determined based on the chemical shift values. These resonance assignments are essential for assessing protein-ligand interactions and are reported here.

Modulation of intercellular junctions by cyclic-ADT peptides as a method to reversibly increase blood-brain barrier permeability

It is challenging to deliver molecules to the brain for diagnosis and treatment of brain diseases. This is primarily because of the presence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), which restricts the entry of many molecules into the brain. In this study, cyclic-ADT peptides (ADTC1, ADTC5, and ADTC6) have been shown to modify the BBB to enhance the delivery of marker molecules [e.g., (14) C-mannitol, gadolinium-diethylenetriaminepentacetate (Gd-DTPA)] to the brain via the paracellular pathways of the BBB. The hypothesis is that these peptides modulate cadherin interactions in the adherens junctions of the vascular endothelial cells forming the BBB to increase paracellular drug permeation. In vitro studies indicated that ADTC5 had the best profile to inhibit adherens junction resealing in Madin-Darby canine kidney cell monolayers in a concentration-dependent manner (IC50 = 0.3 mM) with a maximal response at 0.4 mM. Under the current experimental conditions, ADTC5 improved the delivery of (14) C-mannitol to the brain about twofold compared with the negative control in the in situ rat brain perfusion model. Furthermore, ADTC5 peptide increased in vivo delivery of Gd-DTPA to the brain of Balb/c mice when administered intravenously. In conclusion, ADTC5 has the potential to improve delivery of diagnostic and therapeutic agents to the brain.

A simple and sensitive assay for eflornithine quantification in rat brain using pre-column derivatization and UPLC-MS/MS detection

Eflornithine (α-difluoromethylornithine) has been used to treat second-stage (or meningoencephalitic-stage) human African trypanosomiasis and currently is under clinical development for cancer prevention. In this study, a new ultraperformance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS)-based assay was developed and validated for the quantification of eflornithine in rat brain. To improve chromatographic retention and MS detection, eflornithine was derivatized with 6-aminoquinolyl-N-hydroxysuccinimidyl carbamate for 5 min at room temperature prior to injection. Derivatized eflornithine was separated on a reverse-phase C18 UPLC column with a 6-min gradient; elution occurred at approximately 1.5 min. Prior to derivatization, eflornithine was reproducibly extracted from rat brain homogenate by methanol protein precipitation (~70% recovery). Derivatized eflornithine was stable in the autosampler (6 °C) for at least 24 h. This new assay had acceptable intra- and interday accuracy and precision over a wide dynamic range (5000-fold) and excellent sensitivity with a lower limit of quantification of 0.1 µm (18 ng/mL) using only 10 μL of rat brain homogenate. The validated eflornithine assay was applied successfully to determine eflornithine distribution in different regions of rat brain in an in situ rat brain perfusion study.

Kitosan sebagai Bahan Dasar Drug Delivery: Studi Interaksi antara Segmen Dimer Kitosan dengan Dipeptida Ac-AD-NH2 dan Ac-PV-NH2 secara Komputasi AB-Initio

Telah dilakukan penelitian tentang optimasi dan interaksi antara molekul dipeptida dan dimer kitosan. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mempelajari pembukaan pada junction antar sel yang dilakukan dengan cara memodulasi peptida penyusun khaderinnya. Junction antar sel tersusun atas khaderin-khaderin yang terikat pada membran sel atau disebut dengan istilah trans-membran. Peptida yang digunakan berasal dari sekuens ADT-6 (Ac-ADTPPV-NH2) yaitu Ac-AD-NH2 dan Ac-PV-NH2. Penelitian ini dilakukan dengan metode kuantum ab initio pada tingkat teori dan basis set HF/6-31 G(d,p). Hasil penelitian menunjukkan energi potensial interaksi yang lebih stabil yaitu interaksi dimer kitosan dengan Ac-AD-NH2 konfigurasi 1 sebesar -78,1168 kJ mol-1 Ǻ sedangkan interaksi dimer kitosan dengan Ac-AD-NH2 konfigurasi 2 sebesar -68,6297 kJ mol-1. Segmen dimer kitosan dengan Ac-PV-NH2 konfigurasi 1 yang memiliki energi potensial interaksi sebesar -21,6289 kJ mol-1 sedangkan segmen dimer kitosan dengan Ac-PV-NH2 konfigurasi 2 yang memiliki energi potensial interaksi sebesar -57,6373 kJ mol-1. Kesimpulan adalah interaksi yang lebih stabil antara segmen dimer kitosan dengan peptida Ac-AD-NH2 dan Ac-PV-NH2 terjadi pada konfigurasi 1 dan 2. Aplikasi ke depannya, energi interaksi ini dapat digunakan untuk memprediksikan pelepasan peptida dari kitosan.

Magnetic field enhanced convective diffusion of iron oxide nanoparticles in an osmotically disrupted cell culture model of the blood-brain barrier

PURPOSE

The present study examines the use of an external magnetic field in combination with the disruption of tight junctions to enhance the permeability of iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) across an in vitro model of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). The feasibility of such an approach, termed magnetic field enhanced convective diffusion (MFECD), along with the effect of IONP surface charge on permeability, was examined.

METHODS

The effect of magnetic field on the permeability of positively (aminosilane-coated [AmS]-IONPs) and negatively (N-(trimethoxysilylpropyl)ethylenediaminetriacetate [EDT]-IONPs) charged IONPs was evaluated in confluent monolayers of mouse brain endothelial cells under normal and osmotically disrupted conditions.

RESULTS

Neither IONP formulation was permeable across an intact cell monolayer. However, when tight junctions were disrupted using D-mannitol, flux of EDT-IONPs across the bEnd.3 monolayers was 28%, increasing to 44% when a magnetic field was present. In contrast, the permeability of AmS-IONPs after osmotic disruption was less than 5%. The cellular uptake profile of both IONPs was not altered by the presence of mannitol.

CONCLUSIONS

MFECD improved the permeability of EDT-IONPs through the paracellular route. The MFECD approach favors negatively charged IONPs that have low affinity for the brain endothelial cells and high colloidal stability. This suggests that MFECD may improve IONP-based drug delivery to the brain.

Modulation of blood-brain barrier permeability in mice using synthetic E-cadherin peptide

The present work characterizes the effects of synthetic E-cadherin peptide (HAV) on blood–brain barrier (BBB) integrity using various techniques including magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and near-infrared fluorescent imaging (NIRF). The permeability of small molecular weight permeability marker gadolinium diethylenetriaminepentaacetate (Gd-DTPA) contrast agent, the large molecular weight permeability marker, IRDye 800CW PEG, and the P-glycoprotein (P-gp) efflux transporter contrast agent, rhodamine 800 (R800), were examined in the presence and absence of HAV peptide. The results consistently demonstrated that systemic iv administration of HAV peptide resulted in a reversible disruption of BBB integrity and enhanced the accumulation of all the dyes examined. The magnitude of increase ranged from 2-fold to 5-fold depending on the size and the properties of the permeability markers. The time frame for BBB disruption with HAV peptide was rapid, occurring within 3–6 min following injection of the peptide. Furthermore, modulation of BBB permeability was reversible with the barrier integrity being restored within 60 min of the injection. The increased BBB permeability observed following HAV peptide administration was not attributable to changes in cerebral blood flow. These studies support the potential use of cadherin peptides to rapidly and reversibly modulate BBB permeability of a variety of therapeutic agents.

Improving the stability of the EC1 domain of E-cadherin by thiol alkylation of the cysteine residue

The objective of this work was to improve chemical and physical stability of the EC1 protein derived from the extracellular domain of E-cadherin. In solution, the EC1 protein has been shown to form a covalent dimer via a disulfide bond formation followed by physical aggregation and precipitation. To improve solution stability of the EC1 protein, the thiol group of the Cys13 residue in EC1 was alkylated with iodoacetate, iodoacetamide, and maleimide-PEG-5000 to produce thioether derivatives called EC1-IA, EC1-IN, and EC1-PEG. The physical and chemical stabilities of the EC1 derivatives and the parent EC1 were evaluated at various pHs (3.0, 7.0, and 9.0) and temperatures (0, 3, 70 °C). The structural characteristics of each molecule were analyzed by circular dichroism (CD) and fluorescence spectroscopy and the derivatives have similar secondary structure as the parent EC1 protein at pH 7.0. Both EC1-IN and EC1-PEG derivatives showed better chemical and physical stability profiles than did the parent EC1 at pH 7.0. EC1-PEG had the best stability profile compared to EC1-IN and EC1 in solution under various conditions.

Blood-brain barrier in acute liver failure

Brain edema remains a challenging obstacle in the management of acute liver failure (ALF). Cytotoxic mechanisms associated with brain edema have been well recognized, but evidence for vasogenic mechanisms in the pathogenesis of brain edema in ALF has been lacking. Recent reports have not only shown a role of matrix metalloproteinase-9 in the pathogenesis of brain edema in experimental ALF but have also found significant alterations in the tight junction elements including occludin and claudin-5, suggesting a vasogenic injury in the blood-brain barrier (BBB) integrity. This article reviews and explores the role of the paracellular tight junction proteins in the increased selective BBB permeability that leads to brain edema in ALF.

The role of shear stress in Blood-Brain Barrier endothelial physiology

BACKGROUND

One of the most important and often neglected physiological stimuli contributing to the differentiation of vascular endothelial cells (ECs) into a blood-brain barrier (BBB) phenotype is shear stress (SS). With the use of a well established humanized dynamic in vitro BBB model and cDNA microarrays, we have profiled the effect of SS in the induction/suppression of ECs genes and related functions.

RESULTS

Specifically, we found a significant upregulation of tight and adherens junctions proteins and genes. Trans-endothelial electrical resistance (TEER) and permeability measurements to know substances have shown that SS promoted the formation of a tight and highly selective BBB. SS also increased the RNA level of multidrug resistance transporters, ion channels, and several p450 enzymes. The RNA level of a number of specialized carrier-mediated transport systems (e.g., glucose, monocarboxylic acid, etc.) was also upregulated.RNA levels of modulatory enzymes of the glycolytic pathway (e.g., lactate dehydrogenase) were downregulated by SS while those involved in the Krebs cycle (e.g., lactate and other dehydrogenases) were upregulated. Measurements of glucose consumption versus lactate production showed that SS negatively modulated the glycolytic bioenergetic pathways of glucose metabolism in favor of the more efficient aerobic respiration. BBB ECs are responsive to inflammatory stimuli. Our data showed that SS increased the RNA levels of integrins and vascular adhesion molecules. SS also inhibited endothelial cell cycle via regulation of BTG family proteins encoding genes. This was paralleled by significant increase in the cytoskeletal protein content while that of membrane, cytosol, and nuclear sub-cellular fractions decreased. Furthermore, analysis of 2D gel electrophoresis (which allows identifying a large number of proteins per sample) of EC proteins extracted from membrane sub-cellular endothelial fractions showed that SS increased the expression levels of tight junction proteins. In addition, regulatory enzymes of the Krebb's cycle (aerobic glucose metabolism) were also upregulated. Furthermore, the expression pattern of key protein regulators of the cell cycle and parallel gene array data supported a cell proliferation inhibitory role for SS.

CONCLUSIONS

Genomic and proteomic analyses are currently used to examine BBB function in healthy and diseased brain and characterize this dynamic interface. In this study we showed that SS plays a key role in promoting the differentiation of vascular endothelial cells into a truly BBB phenotype. SS affected multiple aspect of the endothelial physiology spanning from tight junctions formation to cell division as well as the expression of multidrug resistance transporters. BBB dysfunction has been observed in many neurological diseases, but the causes are generally unknown. Our study provides essential insights to understand the role played by SS in the BBB formation and maintenance.