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Eisinger M, Rahn H, Chen Y, Fernandes M, Lin Z, Hentze N, Tavella D, Moussa EM. Elucidation of the Reversible Self-Association Interface of a Diabody-Interleukin Fusion Protein Using Hydrogen-Exchange Mass Spectrometry and In Silico Modeling. Mol Pharm 2024. [PMID: 38922328 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.4c00169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/27/2024]
Abstract
Reversible self-association (RSA) of therapeutic proteins presents major challenges in the development of high-concentration formulations, especially those intended for subcutaneous administration. Understanding self-association mechanisms is therefore critical to the design and selection of candidates with acceptable developability to advance to clinical trials. The combination of experiments and in silico modeling presents a powerful tool to elucidate the interface of self-association. RSA of monoclonal antibodies has been studied extensively under different solution conditions and have been shown to involve interactions for both the antigen-binding fragment and the crystallizable fragment. Novel modalities such as bispecific antibodies, antigen-binding fragments, single-chain-variable fragments, and diabodies constitute a fast-growing class of antibody-based therapeutics that have unique physiochemical properties compared to monoclonal antibodies. In this study, the RSA interface of a diabody-interleukin 22 fusion protein (FP-1) was studied using hydrogen-deuterium exchange coupled with mass spectrometry (HDX-MS) in combination with in silico modeling. Taken together, the results show that a complex solution behavior underlies the self-association of FP-1 and that the interface thereof can be attributed to a specific segment in the variable light chain of the diabody. These findings also demonstrate that the combination of HDX-MS with in silico modeling is a powerful tool to guide the design and candidate selection of novel biotherapeutic modalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Eisinger
- Biologics Analytical Research and Development, AbbVie Deutschland GmbH & Co. KG, Ludwigshafen 67061, Germany
| | - Harri Rahn
- Biologics Analytical Research and Development, AbbVie Deutschland GmbH & Co. KG, Ludwigshafen 67061, Germany
| | - Yong Chen
- Biologics Analytical Research and Development, AbbVie Inc., North Chicago, Illinois 60061, United States
| | - Melissa Fernandes
- Biologics Drug Product Development, AbbVie Inc., North Chicago, Illinois 60061, United States
| | - Zhiyi Lin
- Biologics Drug Product Development, AbbVie Inc., North Chicago, Illinois 60061, United States
| | - Nikolai Hentze
- Biologics Analytical Research and Development, AbbVie Deutschland GmbH & Co. KG, Ludwigshafen 67061, Germany
| | - Davide Tavella
- Biotherapeutics and Genetic Medicine, AbbVie Inc., Worcester, Massachusetts 01604, United States
| | - Ehab M Moussa
- Biologics Drug Product Development, AbbVie Inc., North Chicago, Illinois 60061, United States
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2
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Katayama R, Tanaka N, Takagi Y, Shiraishi K, Tanaka Y, Matsumoto A, Kojima C. Characterization of the Hydration Process of Phospholipid-Mimetic Polymers Using Air-Injection-Mediated Liquid Exclusion Methods. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2020; 36:5626-5632. [PMID: 32308005 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.0c00953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
2-Methacryloyloxyethyl phosphorylcholine (MPC) polymers including hydrophobic units such as poly(MPC-co-butyl methacrylate) (PMB) and poly(MPC-co-dodecyl methacrylate) (PMD) are used as coating agents for medical devices because of their antifouling effects. In this study, the whole hydration process of MPC polymer-coated surfaces was investigated using air-injection-mediated liquid exclusion (AILE) methods in which the liquid exclusion diameter during air injection was correlated to the water-repelling property. The prejetted and standard AILE methods showed the initial change from a dry to a wet state and the swelling behaviors of the MPC polymers, respectively. The liquid exclusion diameter of the MPC polymer-coated surfaces increased with an increase in the immersion time in various aqueous solutions such as deionized water, phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), and cell culture media. Moreover, the liquid exclusion diameter of the PMD-coated surface was larger than that of the PMB-coated one. Ellipsometry directly indicated the polymer layers swollen in water. Scanning probe microscopy (SPM) revealed that nanosized protuberances were formed in water, especially at the PMD-coated surface. The different swelling behaviors of these MPC polymer-coated surfaces affected the liquid exclusion diameters. Thus, the AILE methods are a powerful tool to elucidate the hydration process in various liquid media.
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Affiliation(s)
- Risa Katayama
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka Prefecture University, 1-1, Gakuen-cho, Naka-ku, Sakai, Osaka 599-8531, Japan
- Center for Biosystems Dynamics Research (BDR), RIKEN, 1-3 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Nobuyuki Tanaka
- Center for Biosystems Dynamics Research (BDR), RIKEN, 1-3 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Yusuke Takagi
- Graduate School of Systems Engineering, Kindai University, 1 Takaya-umenobe, Higashihiroshima, Hiroshima 739-2116, Japan
| | - Kohei Shiraishi
- Graduate School of Systems Engineering, Kindai University, 1 Takaya-umenobe, Higashihiroshima, Hiroshima 739-2116, Japan
| | - Yo Tanaka
- Center for Biosystems Dynamics Research (BDR), RIKEN, 1-3 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Akikazu Matsumoto
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka Prefecture University, 1-1, Gakuen-cho, Naka-ku, Sakai, Osaka 599-8531, Japan
| | - Chie Kojima
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka Prefecture University, 1-1, Gakuen-cho, Naka-ku, Sakai, Osaka 599-8531, Japan
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3
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Kalayan J, Henchman RH, Warwicker J. Model for Counterion Binding and Charge Reversal on Protein Surfaces. Mol Pharm 2020; 17:595-603. [PMID: 31887056 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.9b01047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The structural stability and solubility of proteins in liquid therapeutic formulations is important, especially since new generations of therapeutics are designed for efficacy before consideration of stability. We introduce an electrostatic binding model to measure the net charge of proteins with bound ions in solution. The electrostatic potential on a protein surface is used to separately group together acidic and basic amino acids into patches, which are then iteratively bound with oppositely charged counterions. This model is aimed toward formulation chemists for initial screening of a range of conditions prior to lab-work. Computed results compare well with experimental zeta potential measurements from the literature covering a range of solution conditions. Importantly, the binding model reproduces the charge reversal phenomenon that is observed with polyvalent ion binding to proteins and its dependence on ion charge and concentration. Intriguingly, protein sequence can be used to give similarly good agreement with experiment as protein structure, interpreted as resulting from the close proximity of charged side chains on a protein surface. Further, application of the model to human proteins suggests that polyanion binding and overcharging, including charge reversal for cationic proteins, is a general feature. These results add to evidence that addition of polyanions to protein formulations could be a general mechanism for modulating solution stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jas Kalayan
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, The University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester M1 7DN, United Kingdom, and School of Chemistry , The University of Manchester , Oxford Road , Manchester M13 9PL , United Kingdom
| | - Richard H Henchman
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, The University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester M1 7DN, United Kingdom, and School of Chemistry , The University of Manchester , Oxford Road , Manchester M13 9PL , United Kingdom
| | - Jim Warwicker
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, The University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester M1 7DN, United Kingdom, and School of Chemistry , The University of Manchester , Oxford Road , Manchester M13 9PL , United Kingdom
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4
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Das TK, Narhi LO, Sreedhara A, Menzen T, Grapentin C, Chou DK, Antochshuk V, Filipe V. Stress Factors in mAb Drug Substance Production Processes: Critical Assessment of Impact on Product Quality and Control Strategy. J Pharm Sci 2020; 109:116-133. [DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2019.09.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2019] [Revised: 09/29/2019] [Accepted: 09/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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5
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A stepwise mechanism for aqueous two-phase system formation in concentrated antibody solutions. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2019; 116:15784-15791. [PMID: 31337677 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1900886116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Aqueous two-phase system (ATPS) formation is the macroscopic completion of liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS), a process by which aqueous solutions demix into 2 distinct phases. We report the temperature-dependent kinetics of ATPS formation for solutions containing a monoclonal antibody and polyethylene glycol. Measurements are made by capturing dark-field images of protein-rich droplet suspensions as a function of time along a linear temperature gradient. The rate constants for ATPS formation fall into 3 kinetically distinct categories that are directly visualized along the temperature gradient. In the metastable region, just below the phase separation temperature, T ph , ATPS formation is slow and has a large negative apparent activation energy. By contrast, ATPS formation proceeds more rapidly in the spinodal region, below the metastable temperature, T meta , and a small positive apparent activation energy is observed. These region-specific apparent activation energies suggest that ATPS formation involves 2 steps with opposite temperature dependencies. Droplet growth is the first step, which accelerates with decreasing temperature as the solution becomes increasingly supersaturated. The second step, however, involves droplet coalescence and is proportional to temperature. It becomes the rate-limiting step in the spinodal region. At even colder temperatures, below a gelation temperature, T gel , the proteins assemble into a kinetically trapped gel state that arrests ATPS formation. The kinetics of ATPS formation near T gel is associated with a remarkably fragile solid-like gel structure, which can form below either the metastable or the spinodal region of the phase diagram.
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6
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Zhang L, Yu L, Zhang-Van Enk J, Huang G, Zhang J. Phase Behavior of an Fc-Fusion Protein Reveals Generic Patterns of Ion-Specific Perturbation on Protein-Protein Interactions. J Pharm Sci 2017; 106:3287-3292. [DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2017.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2017] [Revised: 06/19/2017] [Accepted: 07/11/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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7
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Kalyuzhnyi YV, Vlachy V. Explicit-water theory for the salt-specific effects and Hofmeister series in protein solutions. J Chem Phys 2017; 144:215101. [PMID: 27276970 DOI: 10.1063/1.4953067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Effects of addition of salts on stability of aqueous protein solutions are studied theoretically and the results are compared with experimental data. In our approach, all the interacting species, proteins, ions, and water molecules, are accounted for explicitly. Water molecules are modeled as hard spheres with four off-center attractive square-well sites. These sites serve to bind either another water or to solvate the ions or protein charges. The ions are represented as charged hard spheres, and decorated by attractive sites to allow solvation. Spherical proteins simultaneously possess positive and negative groups, represented by charged hard spheres, attached to the surface of the protein. The attractive square-well sites, mimicking the protein-protein van der Waals interaction, are located on the surface of the protein. To obtain numerical results, we utilized the energy route of Wertheim's associative mean spherical approximation. From measurable properties, we choose to calculate the second virial coefficient B2, which is closely related to the tendency of proteins to aggregate and eventually crystalize. Calculations are in agreement with experimental trends: (i) For low concentration of added salt, the alkali halide salts follow the inverse Hofmeister series. (ii) At higher concentration of added salt, the trend is reversed. (iii) When cations are varied, the salts follow the direct Hofmeister series. (iv) In contrast to the colloidal theories, our approach correctly predicts the non-monotonic behavior of B2 upon addition of salts. (v) With respect to anions, the theory predicts for the B2 values to follow different sequences below and above the iso-ionic point, as also confirmed experimentally. (vi) A semi-quantitative agreement between measured and calculated values for the second virial coefficient, as functions of pH of solution and added salt type and concentration, is obtained.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuriy V Kalyuzhnyi
- Institute for Condensed Matter Physics, NASU, Svientsitskoho 1, 79011 Lviv, Ukraine
| | - Vojko Vlachy
- Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Technology, University of Ljubljana, Večna pot 113, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
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8
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Zhang J, Frey V, Corcoran M, Zhang-van Enk J, Subramony JA. Influence of Arginine Salts on the Thermal Stability and Aggregation Kinetics of Monoclonal Antibody: Dominant Role of Anions. Mol Pharm 2016; 13:3362-3369. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.6b00255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jifeng Zhang
- Department
of Drug Device and Delivery Development, Biopharmaceutical Development, MedImmune LLC, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20878, United States
| | - Vadim Frey
- Department
of Drug Device and Delivery Development, Biopharmaceutical Development, MedImmune LLC, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20878, United States
| | - Marta Corcoran
- Department
of Drug Device and Delivery Development, Biopharmaceutical Development, MedImmune LLC, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20878, United States
| | - Jian Zhang-van Enk
- Cura Point LLC, 2000 Cal Young Road,
Suite D, Eugene, Oregon 97401, United States
| | - J. Anand Subramony
- Department
of Drug Device and Delivery Development, Biopharmaceutical Development, MedImmune LLC, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20878, United States
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9
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Salis A, Monduzzi M. Not only pH. Specific buffer effects in biological systems. Curr Opin Colloid Interface Sci 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cocis.2016.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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10
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Arora J, Hickey JM, Majumdar R, Esfandiary R, Bishop SM, Samra HS, Middaugh CR, Weis DD, Volkin DB. Hydrogen exchange mass spectrometry reveals protein interfaces and distant dynamic coupling effects during the reversible self-association of an IgG1 monoclonal antibody. MAbs 2016; 7:525-39. [PMID: 25875351 PMCID: PMC4622866 DOI: 10.1080/19420862.2015.1029217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
There is a need for new analytical approaches to better characterize the nature of the concentration-dependent, reversible self-association (RSA) of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) directly, and with high resolution, when these proteins are formulated as highly concentrated solutions. In the work reported here, hydrogen exchange mass spectrometry (HX-MS) was used to define the concentration-dependent RSA interface, and to characterize the effects of association on the backbone dynamics of an IgG1 mAb (mAb-C). Dynamic light scattering, chemical cross-linking, and solution viscosity measurements were used to determine conditions that caused the RSA of mAb-C. A novel HX-MS experimental approach was then applied to directly monitor differences in local flexibility of mAb-C due to RSA at different protein concentrations in deuterated buffers. First, a stable formulation containing lyoprotectants that permitted freeze-drying of mAb-C at both 5 and 60 mg/mL was identified. Upon reconstitution with RSA-promoting deuterated solutions, the low vs. high protein concentration samples displayed different levels of solution viscosity (i.e., approx. 1 to 75 mPa.s). The reconstituted mAb-C samples were then analyzed by HX-MS. Two specific sequences covering complementarity-determining regions CDR2H and CDR2L (in the variable heavy and light chains, respectively) showed significant protection against deuterium uptake (i.e., decreased hydrogen exchange). These results define the major protein-protein interfaces associated with the concentration-dependent RSA of mAb-C. Surprisingly, certain peptide segments in the VH domain, the constant domain (CH2), and the hinge region (CH1-CH2 interface) concomitantly showed significant increases in local flexibility at high vs. low protein concentrations. These results indicate the presence of longer-range, distant dynamic coupling effects within mAb-C occurring upon RSA.
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Key Words
- ADCs, antibody-drug conjugates
- BS2G, bis (sulfosuccinimidyl) 2,2,4,4 glutarate
- BsAbs, bispecific antibodies
- CD, circular dichroism
- CDR, complementarity-determining regions
- CH1-CH3, constant domains 1–3 respectively of the heavy chain
- DLS, dynamic light scattering
- Fab, antigen binding fragment
- Fc, crystallizable fragment
- HC, heavy chain
- HPLC, high-performance liquid chromatography
- HX-MS, hydrogen exchange mass spectrometry
- IgG1, immunoglobulin G1
- LC, light chain
- RSA, reversible self-association
- SC, subcutaneous
- SEC, size-exclusion chromatography
- VH/VL, variable domain of the heavy/light chain
- aggregation
- flexibility
- high protein concentration
- hydrogen exchange
- immunoglobulin G1
- mAb, monoclonal antibody
- mass spectrometry
- monoclonal antibody
- protein-protein interactions
- reversible self-association
- stability
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Affiliation(s)
- Jayant Arora
- a Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry; Macromolecule and Vaccine Stabilization Center; University of Kansas ; Lawrence , KS , USA
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11
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Wang S, Zhang N, Hu T, Dai W, Feng X, Zhang X, Qian F. Viscosity-Lowering Effect of Amino Acids and Salts on Highly Concentrated Solutions of Two IgG1 Monoclonal Antibodies. Mol Pharm 2015; 12:4478-87. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.5b00643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Shujing Wang
- School
of Pharmaceutical Sciences
and Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of
Infectious Diseases, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Ning Zhang
- China R&D and Scientific Affair, Shanghai Discovery Center, Janssen Research & Development, Johnson & Johnson, Shanghai 200030, China
| | - Tao Hu
- China R&D and Scientific Affair, Shanghai Discovery Center, Janssen Research & Development, Johnson & Johnson, Shanghai 200030, China
| | - Weiguo Dai
- Janssen Research & Development, Johnson & Johnson, Malvern, Pennsylvania 19355, United States
| | - Xiuying Feng
- China R&D and Scientific Affair, Shanghai Discovery Center, Janssen Research & Development, Johnson & Johnson, Shanghai 200030, China
| | - Xinyi Zhang
- School
of Pharmaceutical Sciences
and Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of
Infectious Diseases, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Feng Qian
- School
of Pharmaceutical Sciences
and Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of
Infectious Diseases, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
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12
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Jarasch A, Koll H, Regula JT, Bader M, Papadimitriou A, Kettenberger H. Developability Assessment During the Selection of Novel Therapeutic Antibodies. J Pharm Sci 2015; 104:1885-1898. [DOI: 10.1002/jps.24430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 149] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2014] [Revised: 02/28/2015] [Accepted: 03/03/2015] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
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13
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Effect of cleaning agents and additives on Protein A ligand degradation and chromatography performance. J Chromatogr A 2015; 1385:63-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2015.01.068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2014] [Revised: 01/22/2015] [Accepted: 01/24/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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14
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Salinas DG, Reyes JG. Learning about solubility. BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY EDUCATION : A BIMONTHLY PUBLICATION OF THE INTERNATIONAL UNION OF BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2015; 43:3-5. [PMID: 25395353 DOI: 10.1002/bmb.20839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2014] [Revised: 09/30/2014] [Accepted: 10/14/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Qualitative questions are proposed to assess the understanding of solubility and some of its applications. To improve those results, a simple quantitative problem on the precipitation of proteins is proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dino G Salinas
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Diego Portales, Santiago, Chile
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15
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Majumdar R, Manikwar P, Hickey JM, Samra HS, Sathish HA, Bishop SM, Middaugh CR, Volkin DB, Weis DD. Effects of Salts from the Hofmeister Series on the Conformational Stability, Aggregation Propensity, and Local Flexibility of an IgG1 Monoclonal Antibody. Biochemistry 2013; 52:3376-89. [DOI: 10.1021/bi400232p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ranajoy Majumdar
- Department
of Pharmaceutical
Chemistry, Macromolecule and Vaccine Stabilization Center, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66047, United
States
| | - Prakash Manikwar
- Department
of Pharmaceutical
Chemistry, Macromolecule and Vaccine Stabilization Center, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66047, United
States
| | - John M. Hickey
- Department
of Pharmaceutical
Chemistry, Macromolecule and Vaccine Stabilization Center, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66047, United
States
| | - Hardeep S. Samra
- Department of Formulation
Sciences, MedImmune, One MedImmune Way,
Gaithersburg, Maryland
20878, United States
| | - Hasige A. Sathish
- Department of Formulation
Sciences, MedImmune, One MedImmune Way,
Gaithersburg, Maryland
20878, United States
| | - Steven M. Bishop
- Department of Formulation
Sciences, MedImmune, One MedImmune Way,
Gaithersburg, Maryland
20878, United States
| | - C. Russell Middaugh
- Department
of Pharmaceutical
Chemistry, Macromolecule and Vaccine Stabilization Center, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66047, United
States
| | - David B. Volkin
- Department
of Pharmaceutical
Chemistry, Macromolecule and Vaccine Stabilization Center, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66047, United
States
| | - David D. Weis
- Department
of Chemistry and R.
N. Adams Institute for Bioanalytical Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045, United States
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