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Ghaznavi H, Shirvaliloo M, Zarebkohan A, Shams Z, Radnia F, Bahmanpour Z, Sargazi S, Saravani R, Shirvalilou S, Shahraki O, Shahraki S, Nazarlou Z, Sheervalilou R. An Updated Review on Implications of Autophagy and Apoptosis in Tumorigenesis: Possible Alterations in Autophagy through Engineered Nanomaterials and Their Importance in Cancer Therapy. Mol Pharmacol 2021; 100:119-143. [PMID: 33990406 DOI: 10.1124/molpharm.121.000234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2021] [Accepted: 04/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Most commonly recognized as a catabolic pathway, autophagy is a perplexing mechanism through which a living cell can free itself of excess cytoplasmic components, i.e., organelles, by means of certain membranous vesicles or lysosomes filled with degrading enzymes. Upon exposure to external insult or internal stimuli, the cell might opt to activate such a pathway, through which it can gain control over the maintenance of intracellular components and thus sustain homeostasis by intercepting the formation of unnecessary structures or eliminating the already present dysfunctional or inutile organelles. Despite such appropriateness, autophagy might also be considered a frailty for the cell, as it has been said to have a rather complicated role in tumorigenesis. A merit in the early stages of tumor formation, autophagy appears to be salutary because of its tumor-suppressing effects. In fact, several investigations on tumorigenesis have reported diminished levels of autophagic activity in tumor cells, which might result in transition to malignancy. On the contrary, autophagy has been suggested to be a seemingly favorable mechanism to progressed malignancies, as it contributes to survival of such cells. Based on the recent literature, this mechanism might also be activated upon the entry of engineered nanomaterials inside a cell, supposedly protecting the host from foreign materials. Accordingly, there is a good chance that therapeutic interventions for modulating autophagy in malignant cells using nanoparticles may sensitize cancerous cells to certain treatment modalities, e.g., radiotherapy. In this review, we will discuss the signaling pathways involved in autophagy and the significance of the mechanism itself in apoptosis and tumorigenesis while shedding light on possible alterations in autophagy through engineered nanomaterials and their potential therapeutic applications in cancer. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Autophagy has been said to have a complicated role in tumorigenesis. In the early stages of tumor formation, autophagy appears to be salutary because of its tumor-suppressing effects. On the contrary, autophagy has been suggested to be a favorable mechanism to progressed malignancies. This mechanism might be affected upon the entry of nanomaterials inside a cell. Accordingly, therapeutic interventions for modulating autophagy using nanoparticles may sensitize cancerous cells to certain therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Habib Ghaznavi
- Pharmacology Research Center, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (H.G.), Infectious and Tropical Diseases Research Center, (M.S.), Department of Medical Nanotechnology, School of Advanced Medical Sciences,Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran (A.Z.), Department of Biological Science, Kharazmi University, Tehran, Iran (Z.S.), Department of Medical Biotechnology, Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran (F.R.), Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran (Z.B.), Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Resistant Tuberculosis Institute, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (S.Sar), Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Resistant Tuberculosis Institute, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (R.S.), Finetech in Medicine Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran (S.Sh), Pharmacology Research Center, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (O.S), Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Resistant Tuberculosis Institute, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (S.Sha), Material Engineering Department, College of Science Koç University, Istanbul 34450, Turkey (Z.N.), Pharmacology Research Center, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (R.Sh)
| | - Milad Shirvaliloo
- Pharmacology Research Center, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (H.G.), Infectious and Tropical Diseases Research Center, (M.S.), Department of Medical Nanotechnology, School of Advanced Medical Sciences,Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran (A.Z.), Department of Biological Science, Kharazmi University, Tehran, Iran (Z.S.), Department of Medical Biotechnology, Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran (F.R.), Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran (Z.B.), Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Resistant Tuberculosis Institute, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (S.Sar), Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Resistant Tuberculosis Institute, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (R.S.), Finetech in Medicine Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran (S.Sh), Pharmacology Research Center, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (O.S), Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Resistant Tuberculosis Institute, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (S.Sha), Material Engineering Department, College of Science Koç University, Istanbul 34450, Turkey (Z.N.), Pharmacology Research Center, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (R.Sh)
| | - Amir Zarebkohan
- Pharmacology Research Center, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (H.G.), Infectious and Tropical Diseases Research Center, (M.S.), Department of Medical Nanotechnology, School of Advanced Medical Sciences,Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran (A.Z.), Department of Biological Science, Kharazmi University, Tehran, Iran (Z.S.), Department of Medical Biotechnology, Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran (F.R.), Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran (Z.B.), Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Resistant Tuberculosis Institute, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (S.Sar), Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Resistant Tuberculosis Institute, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (R.S.), Finetech in Medicine Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran (S.Sh), Pharmacology Research Center, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (O.S), Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Resistant Tuberculosis Institute, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (S.Sha), Material Engineering Department, College of Science Koç University, Istanbul 34450, Turkey (Z.N.), Pharmacology Research Center, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (R.Sh)
| | - Zinat Shams
- Pharmacology Research Center, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (H.G.), Infectious and Tropical Diseases Research Center, (M.S.), Department of Medical Nanotechnology, School of Advanced Medical Sciences,Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran (A.Z.), Department of Biological Science, Kharazmi University, Tehran, Iran (Z.S.), Department of Medical Biotechnology, Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran (F.R.), Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran (Z.B.), Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Resistant Tuberculosis Institute, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (S.Sar), Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Resistant Tuberculosis Institute, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (R.S.), Finetech in Medicine Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran (S.Sh), Pharmacology Research Center, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (O.S), Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Resistant Tuberculosis Institute, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (S.Sha), Material Engineering Department, College of Science Koç University, Istanbul 34450, Turkey (Z.N.), Pharmacology Research Center, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (R.Sh)
| | - Fatemeh Radnia
- Pharmacology Research Center, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (H.G.), Infectious and Tropical Diseases Research Center, (M.S.), Department of Medical Nanotechnology, School of Advanced Medical Sciences,Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran (A.Z.), Department of Biological Science, Kharazmi University, Tehran, Iran (Z.S.), Department of Medical Biotechnology, Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran (F.R.), Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran (Z.B.), Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Resistant Tuberculosis Institute, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (S.Sar), Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Resistant Tuberculosis Institute, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (R.S.), Finetech in Medicine Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran (S.Sh), Pharmacology Research Center, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (O.S), Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Resistant Tuberculosis Institute, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (S.Sha), Material Engineering Department, College of Science Koç University, Istanbul 34450, Turkey (Z.N.), Pharmacology Research Center, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (R.Sh)
| | - Zahra Bahmanpour
- Pharmacology Research Center, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (H.G.), Infectious and Tropical Diseases Research Center, (M.S.), Department of Medical Nanotechnology, School of Advanced Medical Sciences,Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran (A.Z.), Department of Biological Science, Kharazmi University, Tehran, Iran (Z.S.), Department of Medical Biotechnology, Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran (F.R.), Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran (Z.B.), Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Resistant Tuberculosis Institute, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (S.Sar), Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Resistant Tuberculosis Institute, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (R.S.), Finetech in Medicine Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran (S.Sh), Pharmacology Research Center, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (O.S), Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Resistant Tuberculosis Institute, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (S.Sha), Material Engineering Department, College of Science Koç University, Istanbul 34450, Turkey (Z.N.), Pharmacology Research Center, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (R.Sh)
| | - Saman Sargazi
- Pharmacology Research Center, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (H.G.), Infectious and Tropical Diseases Research Center, (M.S.), Department of Medical Nanotechnology, School of Advanced Medical Sciences,Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran (A.Z.), Department of Biological Science, Kharazmi University, Tehran, Iran (Z.S.), Department of Medical Biotechnology, Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran (F.R.), Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran (Z.B.), Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Resistant Tuberculosis Institute, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (S.Sar), Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Resistant Tuberculosis Institute, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (R.S.), Finetech in Medicine Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran (S.Sh), Pharmacology Research Center, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (O.S), Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Resistant Tuberculosis Institute, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (S.Sha), Material Engineering Department, College of Science Koç University, Istanbul 34450, Turkey (Z.N.), Pharmacology Research Center, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (R.Sh)
| | - Ramin Saravani
- Pharmacology Research Center, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (H.G.), Infectious and Tropical Diseases Research Center, (M.S.), Department of Medical Nanotechnology, School of Advanced Medical Sciences,Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran (A.Z.), Department of Biological Science, Kharazmi University, Tehran, Iran (Z.S.), Department of Medical Biotechnology, Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran (F.R.), Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran (Z.B.), Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Resistant Tuberculosis Institute, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (S.Sar), Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Resistant Tuberculosis Institute, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (R.S.), Finetech in Medicine Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran (S.Sh), Pharmacology Research Center, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (O.S), Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Resistant Tuberculosis Institute, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (S.Sha), Material Engineering Department, College of Science Koç University, Istanbul 34450, Turkey (Z.N.), Pharmacology Research Center, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (R.Sh)
| | - Sakine Shirvalilou
- Pharmacology Research Center, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (H.G.), Infectious and Tropical Diseases Research Center, (M.S.), Department of Medical Nanotechnology, School of Advanced Medical Sciences,Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran (A.Z.), Department of Biological Science, Kharazmi University, Tehran, Iran (Z.S.), Department of Medical Biotechnology, Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran (F.R.), Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran (Z.B.), Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Resistant Tuberculosis Institute, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (S.Sar), Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Resistant Tuberculosis Institute, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (R.S.), Finetech in Medicine Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran (S.Sh), Pharmacology Research Center, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (O.S), Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Resistant Tuberculosis Institute, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (S.Sha), Material Engineering Department, College of Science Koç University, Istanbul 34450, Turkey (Z.N.), Pharmacology Research Center, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (R.Sh)
| | - Omolbanin Shahraki
- Pharmacology Research Center, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (H.G.), Infectious and Tropical Diseases Research Center, (M.S.), Department of Medical Nanotechnology, School of Advanced Medical Sciences,Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran (A.Z.), Department of Biological Science, Kharazmi University, Tehran, Iran (Z.S.), Department of Medical Biotechnology, Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran (F.R.), Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran (Z.B.), Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Resistant Tuberculosis Institute, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (S.Sar), Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Resistant Tuberculosis Institute, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (R.S.), Finetech in Medicine Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran (S.Sh), Pharmacology Research Center, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (O.S), Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Resistant Tuberculosis Institute, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (S.Sha), Material Engineering Department, College of Science Koç University, Istanbul 34450, Turkey (Z.N.), Pharmacology Research Center, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (R.Sh)
| | - Sheida Shahraki
- Pharmacology Research Center, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (H.G.), Infectious and Tropical Diseases Research Center, (M.S.), Department of Medical Nanotechnology, School of Advanced Medical Sciences,Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran (A.Z.), Department of Biological Science, Kharazmi University, Tehran, Iran (Z.S.), Department of Medical Biotechnology, Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran (F.R.), Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran (Z.B.), Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Resistant Tuberculosis Institute, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (S.Sar), Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Resistant Tuberculosis Institute, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (R.S.), Finetech in Medicine Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran (S.Sh), Pharmacology Research Center, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (O.S), Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Resistant Tuberculosis Institute, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (S.Sha), Material Engineering Department, College of Science Koç University, Istanbul 34450, Turkey (Z.N.), Pharmacology Research Center, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (R.Sh)
| | - Ziba Nazarlou
- Pharmacology Research Center, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (H.G.), Infectious and Tropical Diseases Research Center, (M.S.), Department of Medical Nanotechnology, School of Advanced Medical Sciences,Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran (A.Z.), Department of Biological Science, Kharazmi University, Tehran, Iran (Z.S.), Department of Medical Biotechnology, Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran (F.R.), Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran (Z.B.), Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Resistant Tuberculosis Institute, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (S.Sar), Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Resistant Tuberculosis Institute, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (R.S.), Finetech in Medicine Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran (S.Sh), Pharmacology Research Center, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (O.S), Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Resistant Tuberculosis Institute, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (S.Sha), Material Engineering Department, College of Science Koç University, Istanbul 34450, Turkey (Z.N.), Pharmacology Research Center, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (R.Sh)
| | - Roghayeh Sheervalilou
- Pharmacology Research Center, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (H.G.), Infectious and Tropical Diseases Research Center, (M.S.), Department of Medical Nanotechnology, School of Advanced Medical Sciences,Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran (A.Z.), Department of Biological Science, Kharazmi University, Tehran, Iran (Z.S.), Department of Medical Biotechnology, Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran (F.R.), Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran (Z.B.), Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Resistant Tuberculosis Institute, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (S.Sar), Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Resistant Tuberculosis Institute, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (R.S.), Finetech in Medicine Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran (S.Sh), Pharmacology Research Center, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (O.S), Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Resistant Tuberculosis Institute, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (S.Sha), Material Engineering Department, College of Science Koç University, Istanbul 34450, Turkey (Z.N.), Pharmacology Research Center, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran (R.Sh)
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