Orthogonally Functionalized Nanoscale Micelles for Active Targeted Codelivery of Methotrexate and Mitomycin C with Synergistic Anticancer Effect

Sequence-Responsive Multifunctional Supramolecular Nanomicelles Act on the Regression of TNBC and Its Lung Metastasis via Synergic Pyroptosis-Mediated Immune Activation

Design of effective nanodrugs to modulate the immunosuppression of tumor microenvironment is a desirable approach to boost the clinical tumor-therapeutic effect. Supramolecular nanomicelles PolyMN-TO-8, which are constructed by self-assembling supramolecular host MTX-MPEG2000, guest NPX-2S, and TO-8 through hydrophobic forces, have excellent stability and responsiveness to carboxylesterase and glutathione in turn. In vivo studies validate that PolyMN-TO-8 enable to trigger pyroptosis-mediated immunogenic cell death under laser, avoiding the occurrence of immune dysregulation simultaneously. This therapeutic mode strengthens dendritic cells' maturation and accelerates the infiltration of CD8+ T cells into tumors through moderate activation of pro-inflammatory factors with elimination of immune-escape, ultimately making the tumor inhibition rate as high as 87.44% via synergistic functions of photodynamic therapy, photothermal therapy, chemotherapy, etc. The loss of immune-escape quickens the infiltration of CD8+ T cells into lungs, and further eschews the generation of tumor nodules in it. Chemotherapy, the release of interferon-γ, and immune memory effect also strengthen the defense against metastasis. The generation of O2 catalyzed by PolyMN-TO-8 under laser is indispensable for tumor metastasis inhibition undoubtedly.

A Rationally Designed Micellar Nanocarrier for the Delivery of Hydrophilic Methotrexate in Psoriasis Treatment

Methotrexate (MTX) is broadly applied in the clinic for the treatments of cancers and autoimmune diseases. Targeted delivery of MTX is attractive to improve its efficacy and reduce off-target toxicity. However, MTX encapsulation in nanoparticle is challenging due to its high water solubility. We rationally designed a well-defined telodendrimer (TD) nanocarrier based on MTX structure to sequester it in nanoparticles. Riboflavin (Rf) and positive charges groups were precisely conjugated on TD to form multivalent hydrogen bonds, π-π stacking and electrostatic interactions with MTX. A reverse micelle approach was developed to preset MTX and TD interactions in the core of micelles, which ensures the effective MTX loading upon dispersion into aqueous solution. As results, MTX loading capacity reaches over 20% (w/w) in the optimized nanocarrier with the particle size of 20-30 nm. The nanoformulations sustain the release of MTX in a controlled manner and exhibit excellent hemocompatibility. The in vitro cellular uptake of MTX was significantly improved by the nanoformulations. The potency of MTX nanoformulations is comparable to the free MTX in cytotoxicity. A psoriasis-like skin inflammation model was induced in mouse by imiquimod (IMQ) stimulation. MTX nanoformulations improved the psoriasis targeting and exhibited a superior long-lasting efficacy in reducing skin inflammation compared with the free MTX in psoriasis treatment.

Polymers prepared through an “ATRP polymerization–esterification” strategy for dual temperature- and reduction-induced paclitaxel delivery

A dual temperature- and reduction-responsive nanovehicle with 29.36% paclitaxel loading was fabricated using an “ATRP polymerization–esterification” method for tumor suppression.

Surface engineering of nanomaterials with phospholipid-polyethylene glycol-derived functional conjugates for molecular imaging and targeted therapy

In recent years, phospholipid-polyethylene glycol-derived functional conjugates have been widely employed to decorate different nanomaterials, due to their excellent biocompatibility, long blood circulation characteristics, and specific targeting capability. Numerous in vivo studies have demonstrated that nanomedicines peripherally engineered with phospholipid-polyethylene glycol-derived functional conjugates show significantly increased selective and efficient internalization by target cells/tissues. Targeting moieties including small-molecule ligands, peptides, proteins, and antibodies are generally conjugated onto PEGylated phospholipids to decorate liposomes, micelles, hybrid nanoparticles, nanocomplexes, and nanoemulsions for targeted delivery of diagnostic and therapeutic agents to diseased sites. In this review, the synthesis methods of phospholipid-polyethylene glycol-derived functional conjugates, biophysicochemical properties of nanomedicines decorated with these conjugates, factors dominating their targeting efficiency, as well as their applications for in vivo molecular imaging and targeted therapy were summarized and discussed.

Cathepsin-sensitive nanoscale drug delivery systems for cancer therapy and other diseases

Cathepsins are an important category of enzymes that have attracted great attention for the delivery of drugs to improve the therapeutic outcome of a broad range of nanoscale drug delivery systems. These proteases can be utilized for instance through actuation of polymer-drug conjugates (e.g., triggering the drug release) to bypass limitations of many drug candidates. A substantial amount of work has been witnessed in the design and the evaluation of Cathepsin-sensitive drug delivery systems, especially based on the tetra-peptide sequence (Gly-Phe-Leu-Gly, GFLG) which has been extensively used as a spacer that can be cleaved in the presence of Cathepsin B. This Review Article will give an in-depth overview of the design and the biological evaluation of Cathepsin-sensitive drug delivery systems and their application in different pathologies including cancer before discussing Cathepsin B-cleavable prodrugs under clinical trials.

Multifunctional Nanosystem Based on Graphene Oxide for Synergistic Multistage Tumor-Targeting and Combined Chemo-Photothermal Therapy

Locating nanomedicines at the active sites plays a pivotal role in the nanoparticle-based cancer therapy field. Herein, a multifunctional nanotherapeutic is designed by using graphene oxide (GO) nanosheets with rich carboxyl groups as the supporter for hyaluronic acid (HA)-methotrexate (MTX) prodrug modification via an adipicdihydrazide cross-linker, achieving synergistic multistage tumor-targeting and combined chemo-photothermal therapy. As a tumor-targeting biomaterial, HA can increase affinity of the nanocarrier toward CD44 receptor for enhanced cellular uptake. MTX, a chemotherapeutic agent, can also serve as a tumor-targeting enhancer toward folate receptor based on its similar structure with folic acid. The prepared nanosystems possess a sheet shape with a dynamic size of approximately 200 nm and pH-responsive drug release. Unexpectedly, the physiological stability of HA-MTX prodrug-decorated GO nanosystems in PBS, serum, and even plasma is more excellent than that of HA-decorated GO nanosystems, while both of them exhibit an enhanced photothermal effect than GO nanosheets. More importantly, because of good blood compatibility as well as reduced undesired interactions with blood components, HA-MTX prodrug-decorated GO nanosystems exhibited remarkably superior accumulation at the tumor sites by passive and active targeting mechanisms, achieving highly effective synergistic chemo-photothermal therapeutic effect upon near-infrared laser irradiation, efficient ablation of tumors, and negligible systemic toxicity. Hence, the HA-MTX prodrug-decorated hybrid nanosystems have a promising potential for synergistic multistage tumor-targeting therapy.

Integration of phospholipid-hyaluronic acid-methotrexate nanocarrier assembly and amphiphilic drug-drug conjugate for synergistic targeted delivery and combinational tumor therapy

Combinational cancer therapy has been considered as a promising strategy to achieve synergetic therapeutic effects and suppression of multidrug resistance. Herein, we adopted a combination of methotrexate (MTX), an antimetabolite acting on cytoplasm, and 10-hydroxycamptothecin (HCPT), an alkaloid acting on nuclei, to treat cancer. Given the different solubilities, membrane permeabilities, and anticancer mechanisms of both drugs, we developed a dual-targeting delivery system based on 1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine-hyaluronic acid (a principal ligand of CD44 receptors)-MTX (a selective ligand of folate receptors) nanoparticles, which was exploited to carry HCPT-MTX conjugate for synergistically boosting dual-drug co-delivery. The HCPT-MTX conjugate was synthesized by a blood-stable yet intracellularly hydrolysable ester bond. The core-shell-corona DSPE-HA-MTX nanoparticles encapsulating HCPT-MTX (HCPT-MTX@DHM) exhibited high drug entrapment efficiency (∼91.8%) and pH/esterase-controlled release behavior. Cellular uptake studies confirmed significant increase in the efficiency of selective internalization of HCPT-MTX@DHM via CD44/folate receptors compared with those of DSPE-HA nanoparticles encapsulating HCPT-MTX (HCPT-MTX@DH), both drugs, or each individual drug. Furthermore, in vivo near-infrared fluorescence and photoacoustic dual-modal imaging indicated that DiR-doped HCPT-MTX@DHM nanoparticles efficiently accumulated at the tumor sites through passive-plus-active targeting. Finally, the synergistic active targeting and synchronous dual-drug release at a synergistic drug-to-drug ratio resulted in highly synergetic tumor cell-killing and tumor growth inhibition in MCF-7 tumor-bearing mice. Therefore, HCPT-MTX@DHM nanoparticles can be an efficient and smart platform for tumor-targeting therapy.

Anti-EGFR Indocyanine Green-Mitomycin C-Loaded Perfluorocarbon Double Nanoemulsion: A Novel Nanostructure for Targeted Photochemotherapy of Bladder Cancer Cells

The use of phototherapy as an adjuvant bladder cancer treatment has long been considered, but its application has been severely hampered due to a lack of tumor specificity, unpredicted cytotoxicity, and insufficient anticancer efficacy. In this study, we aim to manufacture anti-EGFR indocyanine green (ICG) mitomycin C (MMC) encapsulated perfluorocarbon double nanoemulsions (EIMPDNEs), and explore their photochemotherapeutic efficacy on EGFR-expressing bladder cancer cells in vitro. The EIMPDNEs were manufactured using a double emulsification technique followed by antibody conjugation on the particles’ surfaces. The EIMPDNE were 257 ± 19.4 nm in size, with a surface charge of −12.3 ± 2.33 mV. The EGFR targetability of the EIMPNDE was confirmed by its enhanced binding efficiency to T24 cells when compared with the performance of nanodroplets without EGFR conjugation (p < 0.05). In comparison with freely dissolved ICG, the EIMPDNEs with equal ICG content conferred an improved thermal stability to the encapsulated ICG, and were able to provide a comparable hyperthermia effect and significantly enhanced the production of singlet oxygen under 808 nm near infrared (NIR) exposure with an intensity of 6 W cm−2 for 5 min (p < 0.05). Based on viability analyses, our data showed that the EIMPDNEs were effective in bladder cancer cell eradication upon NIR exposure (808 nm; 6 W cm−2), and the resulting cell death rate was even higher than that caused by a five-fold higher amount of entrapped MMC alone. With the merits of improved ICG stability, EGFR binding specificity, and effective cancer cell eradication, the EIMPDNEs exhibit potential for use in EGFR-expressing bladder cancer therapy with lower chemotoxicity.

N-desmethyl tamoxifen and quercetin-loaded multiwalled CNTs: A synergistic approach to overcome MDR in cancer cells

Our aim was to develop multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs)-based nanoconstructs for the codelivery of N-desmethyl tamoxifen (N-TAM) and a mild P-gp efflux inhibitor, i.e., quercetin (QT) to treat multiple drug resistant (MDR) cancer cells. The hypothesis banks on three-tier attack on the MDR mechanisms viz. drug derivatization, MWCNT permeation and P-gp inhibition. Tamoxifen was converted to N-TAM and was conjugated to carboxylated MWCNTs mediated by a biodegradable linker, i.e., tetraethylene glycol (TEG). QT was adsorbed on the conjugate to fetch the final product, i.e., N-TAM-TEG-MWCNT-QT. Spectroscopic analysis confirmed successful conjugation of N-TAM and physical adsorption of QT. The in-vitro release of N-TAM from the N-TAM-TEG-MWCNT conjugate was minimal to that of pure drug under physiological conditions, but markedly enhanced under the acidic pH of cancer cells. The developed nanometeric formulation was found to be haemo-compatible. Reduced IC₅₀values and better cellular uptake in drug resistant MDA-MB-231 cells were observed, followed by enhanced drug availability in the systemic circulation of rodents vis-à-vis naïve drug. The smart nanosystem conferred the desired temporal drug delivery, enhanced drug efficacy, biocompatibility and conducive pharmacokinetics, which are the crucial desired attributes to tackle the increasing concern of MDR in cancer chemotherapy.

Design of pH-sensitive methotrexate prodrug-targeted curcumin nanoparticles for efficient dual-drug delivery and combination cancer therapy

Aim

We designed acid-labile methotrexate (MTX) targeting prodrug self-assembling nanoparticles loaded with curcumin (CUR) drug for simultaneous delivery of multi-chemotherapeutic drugs and combination cancer therapy.

Methods

A dual-acting MTX, acting as both an anticancer drug and as a tumor-targeting ligand, was coupled to 1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine-N-[aldehyde(polyethylene glycol)-2000] via Schiff's base reaction. The synthesized prodrug conjugate (DSPE-PEG-Imine-MTX) could be self-assembled into micellar nanoparticles (MTX-Imine-M) in aqueous solution, which encapsulated CUR into their core by hydrophobic interactions (MTX-Imine-M-CUR).

Results

The prepared MTX-Imine-M-CUR nanoparticles were composed of an inner hydrophobic DSPE/CUR core and an outside hydrophilic bishydroxyl poly (ethyleneglycol) (PEG) shell with a self-targeting MTX prodrug corona. The imine linker between 1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine-N-[aldehyde(polyethyleneglycol)-2000] and MTX, as a dynamic covalent bond, was strong enough to remain intact in physiological pH, even though it is rapidly cleaved in acidic pH. The MTX-Imine-M-CUR could codeliver MTX and CUR selectively and efficiently into the cancer cells via folate receptor-mediated endocytosis followed by the rapid intracellular release of CUR and the active form of MTX via the acidity of endosomes/lysosomes. Moreover, the MTX-Imine-M-CUR resulted in significantly higher in vitro and in vivo anticancer activity than pH-insensitive DSPE-PEGAmide-MTX assembling nanoparticles loaded with CUR (MTX-Amide-M-CUR), MTX unconjugated DSPE-PEG assembling micellar nanoparticles loaded with CUR (M-CUR), combination of both free drugs, and individual free drugs.

Conclusion

The smart system provided a simple, yet feasible, drug delivery strategy for targeted combination chemotherapy.

Advancements and Challenges in Multidomain Multicargo Delivery Vehicles

Reparative and regenerative processes are well-orchestrated temporal and spatial events that are governed by multiple cells, molecules, signaling pathways, and interactions thereof. Yet again, currently available implantable devices fail largely to recapitulate nature's complexity and sophistication in this regard. Herein, success stories and challenges in the field of layer-by-layer, composite, self-assembly, and core-shell technologies are discussed for the development of multidomain/multicargo delivery vehicles.

Targeted macrophages delivery of rifampicin-loaded lipid nanoparticles to improve tuberculosis treatment

AIM

This work aims to develop a mannosylated nanostructured lipid carrier (NLC) loaded with rifampicin to improve tuberculosis treatment.

MATERIALS & METHODS

An active targeting strategy was used and the nanoparticles were characterized. Effects on cell viability and the antimycobacterial activity of the nanoformulations were evaluated.

RESULTS

The nanoparticles developed exhibited a size of about 315 nm and polydispersity <0.2. The drug encapsulation efficiency was higher than 90% and its release was sensitive to pH. The mannosylated NLCs showed efficient uptake by bone marrow derived macrophages. Further, rifampicin-loaded mannosylated NLCs were more efficient in inducing a decrease of intracellular growth of mycobacteria.

CONCLUSION

The NLCs developed can be used as a promising carrier for safer and efficient management of tuberculosis.

Design of a novel curcumin-soybean phosphatidylcholine complex-based targeted drug delivery systems

Recently, the global trend in the field of nanomedicine has been toward the design of combination of nature active constituents and phospholipid (PC) to form a therapeutic drug-phospholipid complex. As a particular amphiphilic molecular complex, it can be a unique bridge of traditional dosage-form and novel drug delivery system. In thisarticle, on the basis of drug-phospholipid complex technique and self-assembly technique, we chose a pharmacologically safe and low toxic drug curcumin (CUR) to increase drug-loading ability, achieve controlled/sustained drug release and improve anticancer activity. A novel CUR-soybean phosphatidylcholine (SPC) complex and CUR-SPC complex self-assembled nanoparticles (CUR-SPC NPs) were prepared by a co-solvent method and a nanoprecipitation method. DSPE-PEG-FA was further functionalized on the surface of PEG-CUR-SPC NPs (designed as FA-PEG-CUR-SPC NPs) to specifically increase cellular uptake and targetability. The FA-PEG-CUR-SPC NPs showed a spherical shape, a mean diameter of about 180 nm, an excellent physiological stability and pH-triggered drug release. The drug entrapment efficiency and drug-loading content was up to 92.5 and 16.3%, respectively. In vitro cellular uptake and cytotoxicity studies demonstrated that FA-PEG-CUR-SPC NPs and CUR-SPC NPs presented significantly stronger cellular uptake efficacy and anticancer activity against HeLa cells and Caco-2 cells compared to free CUR, CUR-SPC NPs and PEG-CUR-SPC NPs. More importantly, FA-PEG-CUR-SPC NPs showed the prolonged systemic circulation lifetime and enhanced tumor accumulation compared with free CUR and PEG-CUR-SPC NPs. These results suggest that the FA targeted PEGylated CUR-SPC complex self-assembled NPs might be a promising candidate in cancer therapy.

Methotrexate-Camptothecin Prodrug Nanoassemblies as a Versatile Nanoplatform for Biomodal Imaging-Guided Self-Active Targeted and Synergistic Chemotherapy

"All-in-one" carrier-free-based nano-multi-drug self-delivery system could combine triple advantages of small molecules, nanoscale characteristics, and synergistic combination therapy together. Researches have showed that dual-acting small-molecular methotrexate (MTX) could target and kill the folate-receptor-overexpressing cancer cells. Inspired by this mechanism, a novel collaborative early-phase tumor-selective targeting and late-phase synergistic anticancer approach was developed for the self-assembly of chemotherapeutic drug-drug conjugate, which showed various advantages of more simplicity, efficiency, and flexibility over the conventional approach based only on single or combination cancer chemotherapy. MTX and 10-hydroxyl camptothecin (CPT) were chosen to conjugate through ester linkage. Because of the amphiphilicity and ionicity, MTX-CPT conjugates as molecular building blocks could self-assemble into MTX-CPT nanoparticles (MTX-CPT NPs) in aqueous solution, thus notably improving the aqueous solubility of CPT and the membrane permeability of MTX. The MTX-CPT NPs with a precise drug-to-drug ratio showed pH-/esterase-responsive drug release, sequential function "Targeting-Anticancer" switch, and real-time monitoring fluorescence "Off-On" switch. By doping with a lipophilic near-infrared (NIR) cyanine dye (e.g., 1'-dioctadecyl-3,3,3',3'-tetramethylindotricarbocyanine iodide, DiR), the prepared DiR-loaded MTX-CPT NPs acted as an effective probe for in vivo NIR fluorescence (NIRF) and photoacoustic (PA) dual-modal imaging. Both in vitro and in vivo studies demonstrated that MTX-CPT NPs could specifically codeliver multidrug to different sites of action with distinct anticancer mechanisms to kill folate-receptor-overexpressing tumor cells in a synergistic way. This novel, simple, and highly convergent self-targeting nanomulti-drug codelivery system exhibited great potential in cancer therapy.

Elegant pH-Responsive Nanovehicle for Drug Delivery Based on Triazine Dendrimer Modified Magnetic Nanoparticles

Owing to properties of magnetic nanoparticles and elegant three-dimensional macromolecule architectural features, dendrimeric structures have been investigated as nanoscale drug delivery systems. In this work, a novel magnetic nanocarrier, generation two (G2) triazine dendrimer modified Fe₃O₄@SiO₂ magnetic nanoparticles (MNP-G2), was designed, fabricated, and characterized by Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR), thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA), vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and dynamic light scattering (DLS). The prepared MNP-G2 nanosystem offers a new formulation that combines the unique properties of MNPs and triazine dendrimer as a biocompatible material for biomedical applications. To demonstrate the potential of MNP-G2, the nanoparticles were loaded with methotrexate (MTX), a proven chemotherapy drug. The MTX-loaded MNP-G2 (MNP-G2/MTX) exhibited a high drug-loading capacity of MTX and the excellent ability for controlled drug release. The cytotoxicity of MNP-G2/MTX using an 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide based assay and MCF-7, HeLa, and Caov-4 cell lines revealed that MNP-G2/MTX was more active against the tumor cells than the free drug in a mildly acidic environment. The results of hemolysis, hemagglutination, and coagulation assays confirmed the good blood safety of MNP-G2/MTX. Moreover, the cell uptake and intracellular distribution of MNP-G2/MTX were studied by flow cytometry analysis and confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). This research suggests that MNP-G2/MTX with good biocompatibility and degradability can be selected as an ideal and effective drug carrier in targeted biomedicine studies especially anticancer applications.

Dually folate/CD44 receptor-targeted self-assembled hyaluronic acid nanoparticles for dual-drug delivery and combination cancer therapy

Nanoparticles (NPs) functionalized with targeting ligands have shown promise, but are still limited by their nonspecific uptake by certain healthy tissues and cells that express low or even comparable levels of receptors. To increase their accumulation at tumor sites while decreasing the unintended toxicity, a possible solution is the involvement of two separate tumor-specific ligands in the localization. In this study, a dual tumor-targeting drug-loaded NP system was self-assembled by the amphiphilic conjugate of methotrexate-hyaluronic acid-octadecylamine (MTX-HA-OCA) with curcumin (CUR) encapsulated within the hydrophobic core (designated as MTX-HA-OCA/CUR NPs). The advantages of this nanosystem are that the anticancer drug MTX can be utilized as a tumor-targeting ligand toward folate receptors due to its structural similarity to folic acid (FA), and HA can serve as another tumor-targeting ligand toward CD44 receptors. The MTX-HA-OCA/CUR NPs are ∼70 nm in diameter and have sustained/controlled drug release behavior. An in vitro cellular uptake and competition inhibition study exhibited that MTX-HA-OCA/CUR NPs could significantly enhance the internalization efficiency in HeLa cells via folate/CD44 receptor-mediated endocytosis as compared to HA-OCA/CUR NPs. More importantly, the in vitro cytotoxicity of MTX-HA-OCA/CUR NPs was significantly enhanced as compared to those of the HA-OCA/CUR NPs, both free drugs, and individual free drug. Furthermore, the real-time in vivo and ex vivo fluorescence imaging of HeLa tumor-bearing mice showed that MTX-HA-OCA/CUR NPs could more efficiently enhance their accumulation and improve the penetration at the tumor site as compared to HA-OCA/CUR NPs. Therefore, these dually folate/CD44 receptor-targeted self-assembled HA NPs for the co-delivery of both anticancer drugs might provide a promising strategy for dual-targeted combination cancer therapy.

Functionalized Lipid-Polymer Hybrid Nanoparticles Mediated Codelivery of Methotrexate and Aceclofenac: A Synergistic Effect in Breast Cancer with Improved Pharmacokinetics Attributes

The present study was aimed to coencapsulate methotrexate (MTX) and aceclofenac (ACL) in fucose anchored lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles (Fu-LPHNPs) to achieve target specific and controlled delivery for developing therapeutic interventions against breast cancer. The effective combination therapy requires coadministration of drugs to achieve synergistic effect on tumor with minimum adverse effects. Present study investigates the potential of codelivery of MTX and ACL through LPHNPs in MCF-7 and triple negative breast cancer cells (MDA-MB-231). We obtained LPHNPs in the nanosize range (<150 nm) with better particle size distribution (<0.3). The entrapment and loading efficiency of MTX and ACL was calculated as 85-90% and 10-12%, respectively. The coumarin-6 LPHNP formulations showed rapid internalization within 2 h incubation with MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells. With 8-10 times, greater bioavailability of drug-loaded LPHNPs than free MTX and ACL was obtained. Also, antitumor efficacy of MTX- and ACL-loaded LPHNPs was determined on DMBA-induced experimental breast cancer mouse model. This model showed better control over tumor growth with MTX- and ACL-loaded LPHNPs than the combination of MTX and ACL or MTX alone. ACL-loaded LPHNPs showed prophylactic and anticancer activity in DMBA-induced mouse model at higher dose (10 mg/kg). ACL-LPHNPs confer synergistic anticancer effect when administered in combination with MTX. In conclusion, ACL enhances the therapeutic and anticancer efficacy of MTX, when coencapsulated into fucose-anchored LPHNPs, as confirmed by cell viability and serum angiogenesis (IL-6, TNF-α, IL-1β, COX2, and MMP1) at both transcript and proteome level.

Liposomal formulation of a methotrexate lipophilic prodrug: assessment in tumor cells and mouse T-cell leukemic lymphoma

In a previous study, a formulation of methotrexate (MTX) incorporated in the lipid bilayer of 100-nm liposomes in the form of diglyceride ester (MTX-DG, lipophilic prodrug) was developed. In this study, first, the interactions of MTX-DG liposomes with various human and mouse tumor cell lines were studied using fluorescence techniques. The liposomes composed of egg phosphatidylcholine (PC)/yeast phosphatidylinositol/MTX-DG, 8:1:1 by mol, were labeled with fluorescent analogs of PC and MTX-DG. Carcinoma cells accumulated 5 times more MTX-DG liposomes than the empty liposomes. Studies on inhibitors of liposome uptake and processing by cells demonstrated that the formulation used multiple mechanisms to deliver the prodrug inside the cell. According to the data from the present study, undamaged liposomes fuse with the cell membrane only 1.5-2 hours after binding to the cell surface, and then, the components of liposomal bilayer enter the cell separately. The study on the time course of plasma concentration in mice showed that the area under the curve of MTX generated upon intravenous injection of MTX-DG liposomes exceeded that of intact MTX 2.5-fold. These data suggested the advantage of using liposomal formulation to treat systemic manifestation of hematological malignancies. Indeed, the administration of MTX-DG liposomes to recipient mice bearing T-cell leukemic lymphoma using a dose-sparing regimen resulted in lower toxicity and retarded lymphoma growth rate as compared with MTX.

Light/magnetic hyperthermia triggered drug released from multi-functional thermo-sensitive magnetoliposomes for precise cancer synergetic theranostics

Precise delivery of antineoplastic drugs to specific tumor region has drawn much attention in recent years. Herein, a light/magnetic hyperthermia triggered drug delivery with multiple functionality is designed based on methotrexate (MTX) modified thermo-sensitive magnetoliposomes (MTX-MagTSLs). In this system, MTX and oleic acid modified magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) can be applied in biological and magnetic targeting. Meanwhile, lipophilic fluorescent dye Cy5.5 and MNPs are encapsulated into the bilayer of liposomes, which can not only achieve dual-imaging effect to verify the MTX-MagTSLs accumulation in tumor region, but also provide an appropriate laser irradiation region to release Doxorubicin (Dox) under alternating magnetic field (AMF). Both in vitro and in vivo results revealed that MTX-MagTSLs possessed an excellent targeting ability towards HeLa cells and HeLa tumor-bearing mice. Furthermore, the heating effect of MTX-MagTSLs was amplified 4.2-fold upon combination with AMF and local precise near-infrared laser irradiation (808nm) (DUAL-mode) to rapidly reach the phase change temperature (Tm) of MTX-MagTSLs in 5min compared with either AMF or laser stimulation alone, resulting in a significantly enhanced release of Dox at tumor region and precise cancer synergetic theranostics.

Sequence-Defined Oligoamide Drug Conjugates of Pretubulysin and Methotrexate for Folate Receptor Targeted Cancer Therapy

The conjugation of small molecule drugs to ligand containing carrier systems facilitates receptor targeted delivery. The folate receptor (FR) constitutes an ideal target for tumor selective therapy, being overexpressed on several tumor types. It can be targeted using the vitamin folic acid (FolA) or the structurally related drug methotrexate (MTX). Several sequence-defined oligoamides with mono- and multivalent FolA or MTX ligands and an additional thiol conjugation site are synthesized via solid-phase assisted synthesis. Their structure activity relationships are assessed in respect to dihydrofolate reductase inhibition, receptor mediated endocytosis, and cytotoxicity. Then, the tubulin-binding agent pretubulysin (PT), a highly potent drug exhibiting antitumoral, antiangiogenic, and antimetastatic properties, is conjugated via an activated mercaptane derivative to the set of FR-targeting oligoamides. In a combined PT/MTX cytotoxicity study in FR-overexpressing KB and L1210 cells, a 2-arm MTX-PT construct or the 4-arm analog displays the highest potency in the respective cell lines.

Self-targeted salinomycin-loaded DSPE-PEG-methotrexate nanomicelles for targeting both head and neck squamous cell carcinoma cancer cells and cancer stem cells

AIM

To target both head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) cells and cancer stem cells (CSCs) by salinomycin-loaded DSPE-PEG-MTX (synthesized using DSPE-PEG2000-NH2 and methotrexate) nanomicelles (M-SAL-MTX).

MATERIALS & METHODS

The characterization, antitumor activity and mechanism of M-SAL-MTX were evaluated.

RESULTS & CONCLUSION

M-SAL-MTX showed enhanced inhibitory effect toward both HNSCC CSCs and non-CSCs compared with a single treatment of methotrexate and salinomycin. In nude mice-bearing HNSCC xenografts, M-SAL-MTX suppressed tumor growth more effectively than other controls including combination of methotrexate and salinomycin. Therefore, M-SAL-MTX may provide a strategy for treating HNSCC by targeting both HNSCC CSCs and HNSCC cells.

A Comparative Evaluation of Hydroxycamptothecin Drug Nanorods With and Without Methotrexate Prodrug Functionalization for Drug Delivery

We developed a novel self-targeted multi-drug co-delivery system based on rod-shaped 10-hydroxycamptothecin (CPT) nanoanticancer drug (CPT NRs) followed by a surface functionalization with self-targeting PEGylated lipid-conjugated methotrexate (MTX) pro-anticancer drug. The self-targeting effect and in vitro cell viability of the MTX-PEG-CPT NRs on HeLa cells were demonstrated by comparative cellular uptake and MTT assay of the PEG-CPT NRs. In vitro studies showed the feasibility of using this high drug-loading MTX-PEG-CPT NRs in self-targeted drug delivery, controlled-/sustained-release, and synergistic cancer therapy. More importantly, this work would stimulate interest in the use of PEGylated lipid-conjugated MTX by introducing an early-phase tumor-targeting role and then driving a late-phase anticancer role for the highly convergent design of nanomulti-drug, which may advantageously offer a new and simple strategy for simultaneously targeting and treating FA receptor-overexpressing cancer cells.

20(S)-Protopanaxadiol Phospholipid Complex: Process Optimization, Characterization, In Vitro Dissolution and Molecular Docking Studies

20(S)-Protopanaxadiol (PPD), a bioactive compound extracted from ginseng, possesses cardioprotective, neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, antiestrogenic, anticancer and anxiolytic effects. However, the clinical application of PPD is limited by its weak aqueous solubility. In this study, we optimized an efficient method of preparing its phospholipid complex (PPD-PLC) using a central composite design and response surface analysis. The prepared PPD-PLC was characterized by differential scanning calorimetric, powder X-ray diffraction, Fourier-transformed infrared spectroscopy and nuclear magnetic resonance analyses associated with molecular docking calculation. The equilibrium solubility of PPD-PLC in water and n-octanol increased 6.53- and 1.53-times, respectively. Afterwards, using PPD-PLC as the intermediate, the PPD-PLC-loaded dry suspension (PPD-PLC-SU) was prepared with our previous method. In vitro evaluations were conducted on PPD-PLC and PPD-PLC-SU, including dissolution behaviors and stability properties under different conditions. Results of in vitro dissolution behavior revealed the improved dissolution extents and rates of PPD-PLC and PPD-PLC-SU (p < 0.05). Results of the formulation stability investigation also exposed the better stability of PPD-PLC-SU compared with free PPD. Therefore, phospholipid complex technology is a useful formulation strategy for BCS II drugs, as it could effectively improve their hydrophilicity and lipophilicity.

Efficient and Targeted Suppression of Human Lung Tumor Xenografts in Mice with Methotrexate Sodium Encapsulated in All-Function-in-One Chimeric Polymersomes

Anisamide-functionalized reversibly crosslinked chimeric polymersomes emerge as an "all-function-in-one" nanoplatform for efficient loading and targeted delivery of methotrexate disodium, a potent water-soluble anticancer drug, to sigma receptor overexpressing H460 nonsmall lung cancer xenografts in vivo, leading to markedly improved tumor-growth inhibition and survival rate and depleted adverse effects as compared to the clinically used formulation (Trexall).

Combination Chemotherapy of Mitomycin C and Methotrexate Was Effective on Metastatic Breast Cancer Resistant to Eribulin, Vinorelbine, and Bevacizumab after Anthracycline, Taxane, and Capecitabine

Complete cure of metastatic breast cancer (MBC) is still considered difficult even after the development of new drugs. While new drugs have been continuously developed, conventional drugs such as mitomycin C (MMC) and methotrexate (MTX) have become less used. Combination chemotherapy with MMC and MTX (MMC/MTX) was reported to be effective for 9.7–19.4% of 31 patients with human epidermal growth factor receptor type 2 (HER2)-negative MBC who were aggressively treated with anthracycline, taxane, capecitabine, and vinorelbine. However, its efficacy, when it is used after newly developed drugs such as eribulin and bevacizumab, is yet to be evaluated. We here introduce one case in which MMC/MTX was effective for MBC that was resistant to chemotherapy with eribulin, vinorelbine, and bevacizumab with paclitaxel after sequential treatment with anthracycline, taxane, capecitabine, and several hormonal therapies. Lung metastasis was newly observed after sequential treatment of MBC for 6 years. Although the disease was resistant to chemotherapy of eribulin, vinorelbine, and bevacizumab with paclitaxel, it responded well to the treatment of MMC/MTX, which continued for 7 months. This case suggests that MMC/MTX could be an effective treatment for MBC patients when the disease progressively develops even after aggressive treatment with multiple regimens.

Self-assembly of multifunctional integrated nanoparticles loaded with a methotrexate–phospholipid complex: combining simplicity and efficacy in both targeting and anticancer effects

Self-assembly of multifunctional integrated nanoparticles loaded with methotrexate-phospholipid complex have both targeting and anticancer effect to FA receptors overexpressed cancer cells.

Enhanced cell apoptosis triggered by a multi modal mesoporous amphiphilic drug delivery system

Mesoporous magnetic nanoparticles (MMNPs) have been synthesized through a facile soft chemical route and are conjugated with multiple therapeutic agents. These MMNPs have the ability to contain and deliver both hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs simultaneously with the mediation of an AC magnetic field (ACMF). Furthermore, the synthesis and characterization of doxorubicin hydrochloride:paclitaxel (DOX:TXL) and doxorubicin hydrochloride:cisplatin (DOX:Cis-Pt) conjugates are demonstrated. MMNPs show an excellent loading efficiency of ~96:83% (DOX:TXL) and ~93:83% (DOX:Cis-Pt) along with a loading capacity of ~0.002:0.002 mg mg(-1) (DOX:TXL) and ~0.002:0.002 mg mg(-1) (DOX:Cis-Pt), respectively. Over a period of 180 h, a sustained release of drugs is observed and shows a better efficiency at pH 4.3 (~85:63%-DOX:TXL and ~86:73%-DOX:Cis-Pt) compared to that under physiological pH conditions (~28:22%-DOX:TXL and ~26:22%-DOX:Cis-Pt). The MMNPs can release ~37:22% (DOX:TXL) and ~34:25% (DOX:Cis-Pt) within 30 min when triggered by an ACMF (at ~43 °C). The in vitro cytotoxic effect, the ROS generation level and cell cycle distribution analysis of DOX:TXL-MMNPs and DOX:Cis-Pt-MMNPs treated MDA-MB231, MCF-7 and PC3 cancer cells are demonstrated. Enhanced cell apoptosis is observed by thermo-chemotherapy which includes application of an ACMF for 15 min. Specifically, DOX:TXL-MMNPs are more effective than DOX:Cis-Pt-MMNPs towards the PC3 cell line. The internalization of multiple drug loaded MMNPs by cells and their morphological changes due to thermo-chemotherapy are confirmed through confocal microscopy. From the present results, it is observed that the DOX:TXL and DOX:Cis-Pt conjugated MMNPs, under an ACMF, can readily minimize drug resistance. This has significantly enhanced the cell apoptosis of target cancer cells.

Self-Targeted, Shape-Assisted, and Controlled-Release Self-Delivery Nanodrug for Synergistic Targeting/Anticancer Effect of Cytoplasm and Nucleus of Cancer Cells

We constructed 10-hydroxycamptothecin (CPT) "nanodrugs" with functionalization of lipid-PEG-methotrexate (MTX) to prepare high-drug-loaded, and sustained/controlled-release MTX-PEG-CPT nanorods (NRs), in which MTX drug itself can serve as a specific "targeting ligand". The self-targeted nanodrug can codeliver both CPT and MTX drugs with distinct anticancer mechanisms. Furthermore, MTX-PEG-CPT NRs significantly reduced burst release, improved blood circulation and tumor accumulation, enhanced cellular uptake, and synergistically increased anticancer effect against tumor cells compared with MTX-PEG-CPT nanospheres (NSs) and either both free drugs or individual free drug. Therefore, the synergistic targeting/therapeuticy nano-multi-drug codelivery assisted by shape design may advantageously offer a promising new strategy for nanomedicine.

Self-Assembled Nanoparticles Based on Amphiphilic Anticancer Drug-Phospholipid Complex for Targeted Drug Delivery and Intracellular Dual-Controlled Release

Integrating advantages of mitomycin C (MMC)-phospholipid complex for increased drug encapsulation efficiency and reduced premature drug release, DSPE-PEG-folate (DSPE-PEG-FA) for specific tumor targeting, we reported a simple one-pot self-assembly route to prepare the MMC-phospholipid complex-loaded DSPE-PEG-based nanoparticles (MP-PEG-FA NPs). Both confocal imaging and flow cytometry demonstrated that MMC was distributed into nuclei after cellular uptake and intracellular drug delivery. More importantly, the systemically administered MP-PEG-FA NPs led to increased blood persistence and enhanced tumor accumulation in HeLa tumor-bearing nude mice. This study introduces a simple and effective strategy to design the anticancer drug-phospholipid complex-based targeted drug delivery system for sustained/controlled drug release.

Micellar carriers for the delivery of multiple therapeutic agents

Multi-drug therapy is described as a simultaneous or sequential administration of two or more drugs with similar or different mechanisms of action and is recognized as a more efficient solution to combat successfully, various ailments. Polymeric micelles (PMs) are self-assemblies of block copolymers providing numerous opportunities for drug delivery. To date various micellar formulations were studied for delivery of drugs, nutraceuticals and genes; a few of them are in clinical trials. It was observed that there is an immense need for the development of PMs embedding multiple therapeutic agents to combat various ailments, including cancers, HIV/AIDS, malaria, multiple sclerosis, hypertension, infectious diseases, cardiovascular and metabolic diseases, immune disorders and many psychiatric disorders. Several combinations of drug-drug, drug-nutraceutical, drug-gene and drug-siRNA explored to date are detailed in this review, with a special emphasis on their potential and future perspectives. A summary of various preparation methods, characterization techniques and applications of PMs are also provided. This review presents a holistic approach on multi-drug delivery using micellar carriers and emphasizes on the development of therapeutic hybrids embedding novel combinations for safer and effective therapy.

Dual-peptide-functionalized albumin-based nanoparticles with ph-dependent self-assembly behavior for drug delivery

Drug delivery has become an important strategy for improving the chemotherapy efficiency. Here we developed a multifunctionalized nanosized albumin-based drug-delivery system with tumor-targeting, cell-penetrating, and endolysosomal pH-responsive properties. cRGD-BSA/KALA/DOX nanoparticles were fabricated by self-assembly through electrostatic interaction between cell-penetrating peptide KALA and cRGD-BSA, with cRGD as a tumor-targeting ligand. Under endosomal/lysosomal acidic conditions, the changes in the electric charges of cRGD-BSA and KALA led to the disassembly of the nanoparticles to accelerate intracellular drug release. cRGD-BSA/KALA/DOX nanoparticles showed an enhanced inhibitory effect in the growth of αvβ3-integrin-overexpressed tumor cells, indicating promising application in cancer treatments.

Drug/Dye-Loaded, Multifunctional PEG-Chitosan-Iron Oxide Nanocomposites for Methotraxate Synergistically Self-Targeted Cancer Therapy and Dual Model Imaging

Multifunctional nanocomposites hold great potential to integrate therapeutic and diagnostic functions into a single nanoscale structure. In this paper, we prepared the MTX-PEG-CS-IONPs-Cy5.5 nanocomposites by functionalizing the surface of chitosan-decorated iron oxide nanoparticles (CS-IONPs) with polyethylene glycolated methotraxate (MTX-PEG) and near-infrared fluorescent cyanin dye (Cy5.5). A clinically useful PEGylated anticancer prodrug, MTX-PEG, was also developed as a tumor cell-specific targeting ligand for self-targeted cancer treatment. In such nanocomposites, the advantage was that the orthogonally functionalized, self-targeted MTX-PEG-CS-IONPs-Cy5.5 can synergistically combine an early phase selective tumor-targeting efficacy with a late-phase cancer-killing effect, which was also confirmed by dual model (magnetic resonance and fluorescence) imaging. Furthermore, with the aids of the folate (FA) receptor-mediated endocytosis (able to turn cellular uptake "off" in normal cells and "on" in cancer cells) and pH/intracellular protease-mediated hydrolyzing peptide bonds (able to turn drug release "off" in systemic circulation and "on" inside endo/lysosomes), the MTX-PEG-CS-IONPs-Cy5.5 could deliver MTX to FA receptors-overexpressed cancer cells, showing the improved anticancer activity with the reduced side effects. Together, the MTX-PEG-CS-IONPs-Cy5.5 could act as a highly convergent, flexible, and simplified system for dual model imaging and synergistically self-targeted cancer therapy, holding great promise for versatile biomedical applications in future.

Self-targeted, bacillus-shaped, and controlled-release methotrexate prodrug polymeric nanoparticles for intratumoral administration with improved therapeutic efficacy in tumor-bearing mice

Self-targeted, bacillus-shaped, and controlled-release methotrexate prodrug polymeric nanoparticles for highly efficient cancer chemotherapy: more elongated is better.

Validation of a dual role of methotrexate-based chitosan nanoparticles in vivo

Surface functionalization of a PEGylated chitosan nanoparticle with dual-acting methotrexate drives a tumor-targeting effect and also introduces an anticancer effect.

Redox-sensitive hyaluronic acid–paclitaxel conjugate micelles with high physical drug loading for efficient tumor therapy

Characterization of targeted redox-sensitive micelles self-assembled from polymer–drug conjugates exhibiting conspicuous drug loading capabilities, selective cellular uptake, rapid intracellular disassembly and drug release is presented.

Self-delivery nanoparticles from an amphiphilic covalent drug couple of irinotecan and bendamustine for cancer combination chemotherapy

We demonstrate an approach to prepare an anticancer drug self-delivery system from an amphiphilic covalent drug couple (Ir–Bd) for cancer combination chemotherapy.