1
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Blankespoor M, Manzaneque T, Ghatkesar MK. Discrete Femtolitre Pipetting with 3D Printed Axisymmetrical Phaseguides. SMALL METHODS 2024; 8:e2300942. [PMID: 37840387 DOI: 10.1002/smtd.202300942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2023] [Indexed: 10/17/2023]
Abstract
The capacity to precisely pipette femtoliter volumes of liquid enables many applications, for example, to functionalize a nanoscale surface and manipulate fluids inside a single-cell. A pressure-controlled pipetting method is the most preferred, since it enables the widest range of working liquids. However, precisely controlling femtoliter volumes by pressure is challenging. In this work, a new concept is proposed that makes use of axisymmetrical phaseguides inside a microfluidic channel to pipette liquid in discrete steps of known volume. An analytical model for the design of the femtopipettes is developed and verified experimentally. Femtopipettes are fabricated using a multi-scale 3D printing strategy integrating a digital light processing printed part and a two-photon-polymerization printed part. Three different variants are designed and fabricated with pipetting resolutions of 10 picoliters, 180 femtoliters and 50 femtoliters. As a demonstration, controlled amounts of a water-glycerol mixture were first aspirated and then dispensed into a mineral oil droplet.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maarten Blankespoor
- Department of Precision and Microsystems Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Mekelweg 2, Delft, 2628CD, The Netherlands
| | - Tomás Manzaneque
- Department of Microelectronics, Delft University of Technology, Mekelweg 4, Delft, 2628CD, The Netherlands
| | - Murali Krishna Ghatkesar
- Department of Precision and Microsystems Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Mekelweg 2, Delft, 2628CD, The Netherlands
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2
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Abstract
Scanning ion conductance microscopy (SICM) has emerged as a versatile tool for studies of interfaces in biology and materials science with notable utility in biophysical and electrochemical measurements. The heart of the SICM is a nanometer-scale electrolyte filled glass pipette that serves as a scanning probe. In the initial conception, manipulations of ion currents through the tip of the pipette and appropriate positioning hardware provided a route to recording micro- and nanoscopic mapping of the topography of surfaces. Subsequent advances in instrumentation, probe design, and methods significantly increased opportunities for SICM beyond recording topography. Hybridization of SICM with coincident characterization techniques such as optical microscopy and faradaic electrodes have brought SICM to the forefront as a tool for nanoscale chemical measurement for a wide range of applications. Modern approaches to SICM realize an important tool in analytical, bioanalytical, biophysical, and materials measurements, where significant opportunities remain for further exploration. In this review, we chronicle the development of SICM from the perspective of both the development of instrumentation and methods and the breadth of measurements performed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheng Zhu
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, 800 E. Kirkwood Avenue, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, United States
| | - Kaixiang Huang
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, 800 E. Kirkwood Avenue, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, United States
| | - Natasha P Siepser
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, 800 E. Kirkwood Avenue, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, United States
| | - Lane A Baker
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, 800 E. Kirkwood Avenue, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, United States
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3
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Nguyen Y, Chang HP, Hsieh MS, Santos ID, Chen SD, Hsieh YP, Hofmann M. Characterizing carrier transport in nanostructured materials by force-resolved microprobing. Sci Rep 2020; 10:14177. [PMID: 32843679 PMCID: PMC7447755 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-71147-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2020] [Accepted: 08/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The advent of novel nanostructured materials has enabled wearable and 3D electronics. Unfortunately, their characterization represents new challenges that are not encountered in conventional electronic materials, such as limited mechanical strength, complex morphology and variability of properties. We here demonstrate that force-resolved measurements can overcome these issues and open up routes for new applications. First, the contact resistance to 2D materials was found to be sensitively depending on the contact force and, by optimizing this parameter, reliable contacts could be repeatably formed without damage to the fragile material. Moreover, resistance of three-dimensional surfaces could be investigated with high accuracy in spatial position and signal through a force-feedback scheme. This force-feedback approach furthermore permitted large-scale statistical characterization of mobility and doping of 2D materials in a desktop-sized automatic probing system that fits into glove boxes and vacuum enclosures using easily available and low-cost components. Finally, force-sensitive measurements enable characterization of complex electronic properties with high lateral resolution. To illustrate this ability, the spatial variation of a surface’s electrochemical response was investigated by scanning a single electrolyte drop across the sample.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yen Nguyen
- Graduate Institute of Applied Physics, National Taiwan University, Taipei, 10617, Taiwan
| | - Hui-Ping Chang
- Institute of Atomic and Molecular Science, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 10617, Taiwan
| | - Meng-Syun Hsieh
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, 70101, Taiwan
| | - Ian Daniell Santos
- Department of Physics, National Taiwan University, Taipei, 10617, Taiwan
| | - Sheng-Ding Chen
- Department of Physics, National Taiwan University, Taipei, 10617, Taiwan
| | - Ya-Ping Hsieh
- Institute of Atomic and Molecular Science, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 10617, Taiwan
| | - Mario Hofmann
- Department of Physics, National Taiwan University, Taipei, 10617, Taiwan.
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4
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Li Y, Morel A, Gallant D, Mauzeroll J. Oil-Immersed Scanning Micropipette Contact Method Enabling Long-term Corrosion Mapping. Anal Chem 2020; 92:12415-12422. [PMID: 32786459 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.0c02177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
This work reports the development of an oil-immersed scanning micropipette contact method, a variant of the scanning micropipette contact method, where a thin layer of oil wets the investigated substrate. The oil-immersed scanning micropipette contact method significantly increases the droplet stability, allowing for prolonged mapping and the use of highly evaporative saline solutions regardless of ambient humidity levels. This systematic mapping technique was used to conduct a detailed investigation of localized corrosion taking place at the surface of an AA7075-T73 aluminum alloy in a 3.5 wt % NaCl electrolyte solution, which is typically challenging in the conventional scanning micropipette contact method. Maps of corrosion potentials and corrosion currents extracted from potentiodynamic polarization curves showed good correlations with the chemical composition of surface features and known galvanic interactions at the microscale level. This demonstrates the viability of the oil-immersed scanning micropipette contact method and opens up the avenue to mechanistic corrosion investigations at the microscale level using aqueous solutions that are prone to evaporation under noncontrolled humidity levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanjiao Li
- Department of Chemistry, McGill University, 801 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, H3A 0B8 Quebec, Canada
| | - Alban Morel
- Automotive and Surface Transportation Research Centre, Division of Transportation and Manufacturing, National Research Council Canada, 75 de Mortagne Blvd, Boucherville, J4B 6Y4 Quebec, Canada
| | - Danick Gallant
- Automotive and Surface Transportation Research Centre, Division of Transportation and Manufacturing, Aluminum Technology Center, National Research Council Canada, 501 University Blvd East, Saguenay, G7H 8C3 Quebec, Canada
| | - Janine Mauzeroll
- Department of Chemistry, McGill University, 801 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, H3A 0B8 Quebec, Canada
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5
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Cadinu P, Kang M, Nadappuram BP, Ivanov AP, Edel JB. Individually Addressable Multi-nanopores for Single-Molecule Targeted Operations. NANO LETTERS 2020; 20:2012-2019. [PMID: 32053383 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.9b05307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The fine-tuning of molecular transport is a ubiquitous problem of single-molecule methods. The latter is evident even in powerful single-molecule techniques such as nanopore sensing, where the quest for resolving more detailed biomolecular features is often limited by insufficient control of the dynamics of individual molecules within the detection volume of the nanopore. In this work, we introduce and characterize a reconfigurable multi-nanopore architecture that enables additional channels to manipulate the dynamics of DNA molecules in a nanopore. We show that the fabrication process of this device, consisting of four adjacent, individually addressable nanopores located at the tip of a quartz nanopipette, is fast and highly reproducible. By individually tuning the electric field across each nanopore, these devices can operate in several unique cooperative detection modes that allow moving, sensing, and trapping of DNA molecules with high efficiency and increased temporal resolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paolo Cadinu
- Department of Chemistry, Imperial College London, Molecular Science Research Hub, White City Campus, 80 Wood Lane, London W12 0BZ, U.K
| | - Minkyung Kang
- Department of Chemistry, Imperial College London, Molecular Science Research Hub, White City Campus, 80 Wood Lane, London W12 0BZ, U.K
| | - Binoy Paulose Nadappuram
- Department of Chemistry, Imperial College London, Molecular Science Research Hub, White City Campus, 80 Wood Lane, London W12 0BZ, U.K
| | - Aleksandar P Ivanov
- Department of Chemistry, Imperial College London, Molecular Science Research Hub, White City Campus, 80 Wood Lane, London W12 0BZ, U.K
| | - Joshua B Edel
- Department of Chemistry, Imperial College London, Molecular Science Research Hub, White City Campus, 80 Wood Lane, London W12 0BZ, U.K
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6
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Abstract
A concentration gradient driven imaging mechanism is described for scanning ion conductance microscopy (SICM). Two different solution phases, one filling a double-barrel pipet and one in the bath, are used to afford probe control and imaging under nonstandard SICM conditions. Under these conditions, solutions with no added electrolyte can be utilized as the bath solution. Further, both positive and negative feedback modes are exhibited as the probe approaches the surface. We term this method biphasic-SICM (BP-SICM). Technical details of implementing BP-SICM and operational principles are described herein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Myunghoon Choi
- Department of Chemistry , Indiana University , 800 E. Kirkwood Avenue , Bloomington , Indiana 47405 , United States
| | - Lane A Baker
- Department of Chemistry , Indiana University , 800 E. Kirkwood Avenue , Bloomington , Indiana 47405 , United States
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7
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Wang S, Fu J, Wang K, Gao M, Wang X, Wang Z, Xu Q. Bifunctional nanoscale magnetic chains with high saturation magnetization and catalytic activity. J Colloid Interface Sci 2018; 525:152-160. [PMID: 29702321 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2018.04.080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2018] [Revised: 04/18/2018] [Accepted: 04/19/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The conventional stirring method cannot be employed for chip-on-lab reactions such as microfluidic and microdroplet reactions as well as nanoscale reactions. Therefore, it is necessary to design a nanoscale magnetic stirrer with a high magnetic response towards the external magnetic field. In this work, one dimentional core@shell structured Fe-Fe2O3@poly(cyclotriphosphazene-co-4,4'-sulfonyldiphenol) magnetic nanochains modified by nickel hydroxide (denoted as Fe-Fe2O3@PZS@Ni(OH)2 NCs) as nanoscale magnetic stirrer and recyclable self-mixing nanocatalysts are successfully prepared through three steps: synthesis of Fe-Fe2O3 nanochains (NCs) with high saturation magnetization, coating with poly (cyclotriphosphazene-co-4,4'-sulfonyldiphenol) (PZS), and nickel hydroxide's anchoring on the surface of Fe-Fe2O3@PZS NCs. The cross-linked polymer PZS is used to protect Fe-Fe2O3 NCs from chemical corrosion and as a platform for subsequent immobilization of nickel hydroxide. Characterization results show that the Fe-Fe2O3@PZS@Ni(OH)2 NCs own chainlike structure and high saturation magnetization of 103 emu g-1 at room temperature, exhibiting high magnetic response to the external rotating magnetic field. In the macro-reaction system for 4-nitrophenol (4-NP) reduction, the as-prepared Fe-Fe2O3@PZS@Ni(OH)2 NCs show an apparent rate constant of about 0.60 min-1. Furthermore, the Fe-Fe2O3@PZS@Ni(OH)2 catalyst is reused ten times while no obvious loss of catalytic activity was observed. In the micro-reaction system, the Fe-Fe2O3@PZS@Ni(OH)2 NCs also display good magnetic response and favorable catalytic activity for the hydrogenation of methylene blue. These results indicate that the bifunctional Fe-Fe2O3@PZS@Ni(OH)2 NCs with high saturation magnetization have great potential as excellent nanocatalysts and as promising nanoscale magnetic stirrers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaomin Wang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450052, PR China
| | - Jianwei Fu
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450052, PR China.
| | - Kai Wang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450052, PR China
| | - Meng Gao
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450052, PR China
| | - Xuzhe Wang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450052, PR China
| | - Zhiwei Wang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450052, PR China
| | - Qun Xu
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450052, PR China.
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8
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Saha-Shah A, Karty JA, Baker LA. Local collection, reaction and analysis with theta pipette emitters. Analyst 2018; 142:1512-1518. [PMID: 28361146 DOI: 10.1039/c7an00109f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
A mobile nanofluidic device based on theta pipettes was developed for "collect-react-analyze" measurements of small volumes of a sample collected locally from biological samples. Specifically, we demonstrate execution of local reactions inside single cells and on Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms for targeted analysis of metabolites. Nanoliter volumes of the sample, post-reaction, were delivered to a mass spectrometer via electrospray ionization (ESI) for chemical analysis. A new strategy was developed where the additional barrel of a theta pipette was utilized both to enable chemical manipulations after sample collection and to electrospray the nanoliter sample volumes collected directly from the pipette tip. This strategy proved a robust method for ESI from nanometer sized tips without clogging or degradation of the emitter and obviated the need to coat glass pipettes with a conductive metal coating. Chemical reactions investigated include acid catalyzed degradation of oligosaccharides inside the pipette tip to increase the detection sensitivity of minor metabolites found in Allium cepa cells. Additionally, phenylboronic acid complexation of carbohydrates from single cells and liposaccharides from biofilms was also performed inside the pipette tip for selective detection of carbohydrates and liposaccharides with cis-diols.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anumita Saha-Shah
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, 800 E. Kirkwood Avenue, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, USA.
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9
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Bulbul G, Chaves G, Olivier J, Ozel RE, Pourmand N. Nanopipettes as Monitoring Probes for the Single Living Cell: State of the Art and Future Directions in Molecular Biology. Cells 2018; 7:E55. [PMID: 29882813 PMCID: PMC6024992 DOI: 10.3390/cells7060055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2018] [Revised: 06/01/2018] [Accepted: 06/05/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Examining the behavior of a single cell within its natural environment is valuable for understanding both the biological processes that control the function of cells and how injury or disease lead to pathological change of their function. Single-cell analysis can reveal information regarding the causes of genetic changes, and it can contribute to studies on the molecular basis of cell transformation and proliferation. By contrast, whole tissue biopsies can only yield information on a statistical average of several processes occurring in a population of different cells. Electrowetting within a nanopipette provides a nanobiopsy platform for the extraction of cellular material from single living cells. Additionally, functionalized nanopipette sensing probes can differentiate analytes based on their size, shape or charge density, making the technology uniquely suited to sensing changes in single-cell dynamics. In this review, we highlight the potential of nanopipette technology as a non-destructive analytical tool to monitor single living cells, with particular attention to integration into applications in molecular biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gonca Bulbul
- Department of Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA.
| | - Gepoliano Chaves
- Department of Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA.
| | - Joseph Olivier
- Department of Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA.
| | - Rifat Emrah Ozel
- Department of Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA.
| | - Nader Pourmand
- Department of Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA.
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10
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Oseland EE, Ayres ZJ, Basile A, Haddleton DM, Wilson P, Unwin PR. Surface patterning of polyacrylamide gel using scanning electrochemical cell microscopy (SECCM). Chem Commun (Camb) 2018; 52:9929-32. [PMID: 27430961 DOI: 10.1039/c6cc05153g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Scanning electrochemical cell microscopy is introduced as a new tool for the synthesis and deposition of polymers on SAM-functionalised Au surfaces. The deposition of poly(N-hydroxyethyl acrylamide) is shown to be enhanced through the electrochemical generation of activating Cu(i)Cl/Me6TREN catalyst. Initiation of the polymerisation reaction is most likely due to in situ generation of reactive oxygen species following oxygen reduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth E Oseland
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Gibbet Hill Road, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK.
| | - Zoë J Ayres
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Gibbet Hill Road, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK.
| | - Andrew Basile
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Gibbet Hill Road, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK. and Deakin University, Burwood Campus, Institute for Frontier Materials, Victoria 3125, Australia
| | - David M Haddleton
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Gibbet Hill Road, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK.
| | - Paul Wilson
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Gibbet Hill Road, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK.
| | - Patrick R Unwin
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Gibbet Hill Road, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK.
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11
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Rheinlaender J, Schäffer TE. An Accurate Model for the Ion Current–Distance Behavior in Scanning Ion Conductance Microscopy Allows for Calibration of Pipet Tip Geometry and Tip–Sample Distance. Anal Chem 2017; 89:11875-11880. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.7b03871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Johannes Rheinlaender
- Institute of Applied Physics, University of Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 10, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Tilman E. Schäffer
- Institute of Applied Physics, University of Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 10, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
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12
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Cadinu P, Paulose Nadappuram B, Lee DJ, Sze JYY, Campolo G, Zhang Y, Shevchuk A, Ladame S, Albrecht T, Korchev Y, Ivanov AP, Edel JB. Single Molecule Trapping and Sensing Using Dual Nanopores Separated by a Zeptoliter Nanobridge. NANO LETTERS 2017; 17:6376-6384. [PMID: 28862004 PMCID: PMC5662926 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.7b03196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2017] [Revised: 09/01/2017] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
There is a growing realization, especially within the diagnostic and therapeutic community, that the amount of information enclosed in a single molecule can not only enable a better understanding of biophysical pathways, but also offer exceptional value for early stage biomarker detection of disease onset. To this end, numerous single molecule strategies have been proposed, and in terms of label-free routes, nanopore sensing has emerged as one of the most promising methods. However, being able to finely control molecular transport in terms of transport rate, resolution, and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is essential to take full advantage of the technology benefits. Here we propose a novel solution to these challenges based on a method that allows biomolecules to be individually confined into a zeptoliter nanoscale droplet bridging two adjacent nanopores (nanobridge) with a 20 nm separation. Molecules that undergo confinement in the nanobridge are slowed down by up to 3 orders of magnitude compared to conventional nanopores. This leads to a dramatic improvement in the SNR, resolution, sensitivity, and limit of detection. The strategy implemented is universal and as highlighted in this manuscript can be used for the detection of dsDNA, RNA, ssDNA, and proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paolo Cadinu
- Department
of Chemistry, Department of Bioengineering, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Binoy Paulose Nadappuram
- Department
of Chemistry, Department of Bioengineering, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Dominic J. Lee
- Department
of Chemistry, Department of Bioengineering, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Jasmine Y. Y. Sze
- Department
of Chemistry, Department of Bioengineering, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Giulia Campolo
- Department
of Chemistry, Department of Bioengineering, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Yanjun Zhang
- Department
of Chemistry, Department of Bioengineering, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew Shevchuk
- Department
of Chemistry, Department of Bioengineering, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Sylvain Ladame
- Department
of Chemistry, Department of Bioengineering, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Tim Albrecht
- Department
of Chemistry, Department of Bioengineering, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Yuri Korchev
- Department
of Chemistry, Department of Bioengineering, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Aleksandar P. Ivanov
- Department
of Chemistry, Department of Bioengineering, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Joshua B. Edel
- Department
of Chemistry, Department of Bioengineering, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
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13
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Je JH, Kim JM, Jaworski J. Progression in the Fountain Pen Approach: From 2D Writing to 3D Free-Form Micro/Nanofabrication. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2017; 13:1600137. [PMID: 28060466 DOI: 10.1002/smll.201600137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2016] [Revised: 09/07/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The fountain pen approach, as a means for transferring materials to substrates, has shown numerous incarnations in recent years for creating 2D micro/nanopatterns and even generating 3D free-form nanostructures using a variety of material "inks". While the idea of filled reservoirs used to deliver material to a substrate via a capillary remains unchanged since antiquity, the advent of precise micromanipulation systems and functional material "inks" allows the extension of this mechanism to more high-tech applications. Herein, the recent growth in meniscus guided fountain pen approaches for benchtop micro/nanofabrication, which has occurred in the last decade, is discussed. Particular attention is given to the theory, equipment, and experimentation encompassing this unique direct writing approach. A detailed exploration of the diverse ink systems and functional device applications borne from this strategy is put forth to reveal its rapid expansion to a broad range of scientific and engineering disciplines. As such, this informative review is provided for researchers considering adoption of this recent advancement of a familiar technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jung Ho Je
- Pohang University of Science and Technology, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, San 31, Hyoja-dong, Pohang, 790-784, South Korea
| | - Jong-Man Kim
- Hanyang University, Department of Chemical Engineering, Institute of Nanoscience and Technology, 222 Wangsimni-ro, Seoul, 133-791, South Korea
| | - Justyn Jaworski
- Hanyang University, Department of Chemical Engineering, Institute of Nanoscience and Technology, 222 Wangsimni-ro, Seoul, 133-791, South Korea
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Texas at Arlington (UTA), 501 W. 1st Street, Arlington, Texas, 76010, USA
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14
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Takahashi Y, Kumatani A, Shiku H, Matsue T. Scanning Probe Microscopy for Nanoscale Electrochemical Imaging. Anal Chem 2016; 89:342-357. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.6b04355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yasufumi Takahashi
- Division
of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan
- Precursory
Research for Embryonic Science and Technology (PRESTO), Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST), Saitama 332-0012, Japan
| | - Akichika Kumatani
- Advanced
Institute for Materials Research, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8577, Japan
- Graduate
School of Environmental Studies, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8579, Japan
| | - Hitoshi Shiku
- Department
of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8579, Japan
| | - Tomokazu Matsue
- Advanced
Institute for Materials Research, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8577, Japan
- Graduate
School of Environmental Studies, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8579, Japan
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15
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Zhou M, Yu Y, Blanchard PY, Mirkin MV. Surface Patterning Using Diazonium Ink Filled Nanopipette. Anal Chem 2015; 87:10956-62. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.5b02784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Min Zhou
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Queens College, CUNY, Flushing, New York 11367, United States
- The Graduate Center of CUNY, New York, New York 10016, United States
| | - Yun Yu
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Queens College, CUNY, Flushing, New York 11367, United States
- The Graduate Center of CUNY, New York, New York 10016, United States
| | - Pierre-Yves Blanchard
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Queens College, CUNY, Flushing, New York 11367, United States
- The Graduate Center of CUNY, New York, New York 10016, United States
| | - Michael V. Mirkin
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Queens College, CUNY, Flushing, New York 11367, United States
- The Graduate Center of CUNY, New York, New York 10016, United States
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16
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Larson JM, Bharath SC, Cullen WG, Reutt-Robey JE. Scanning MWCNT-Nanopipette and Probe Microscopy: Li Patterning and Transport Studies. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2015; 11:4946-4958. [PMID: 26182911 DOI: 10.1002/smll.201500999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
A carbon-nanotube-enabling scanning probe technique/nanotechnology for manipulating and measuring lithium at the nano/mesoscale is introduced. Scanning Li-nanopipette and probe microscopy (SLi-NPM) is based on a conductive atomic force microscope (AFM) cantilever with an open-ended multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWCNT) affixed to its apex. SLi-NPM operation is demonstrated with a model system consisting of a Li thin film on a Si(111) substrate. By control of bias, separation distance, and contact time, attograms of Li can be controllably pipetted to or from the MWCNT tip. Patterned surface Li features are then directly probed via noncontact AFM measurements with the MWCNT tip. The subsequent decay of Li features is simulated with a mesoscale continuum model, developed here. The Li surface diffusion coefficient for a four (two) Li layer thick film is measured as D=8(±1.2)×10(-15) cm(2) s(-1) (D=1.75(±0.15)×10(-15) cm(2) s(-1)). Dual-Li pipetting/measuring with SLi-NPM enables a broad range of time-dependent Li and nanoelectrode characterization studies of fundamental importance to energy-storage research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan M Larson
- Department of Physics, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, 20742-4111, USA
| | - Satyaveda C Bharath
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, 20742-4454, USA
- US Army Research Laboratory, Aberdeen, MD, 21005, USA
| | - William G Cullen
- Department of Physics, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, 20742-4111, USA
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, 20899-1070, USA
| | - Janice E Reutt-Robey
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, 20742-4454, USA
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17
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Nadappuram BP, McKelvey K, Byers JC, Güell AG, Colburn AW, Lazenby RA, Unwin PR. Quad-barrel multifunctional electrochemical and ion conductance probe for voltammetric analysis and imaging. Anal Chem 2015; 87:3566-73. [PMID: 25719392 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.5b00379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
The fabrication and use of a multifunctional electrochemical probe incorporating two independent carbon working electrodes and two electrolyte-filled barrels, equipped with quasi-reference counter electrodes (QRCEs), in the end of a tapered micrometer-scale pipet is described. This "quad-probe" (4-channel probe) was fabricated by depositing carbon pyrolytically into two diagonally opposite barrels of a laser-pulled quartz quadruple-barrelled pipet. After filling the open channels with electrolyte solution, a meniscus forms at the end of the probe and covers the two working electrodes. The two carbon electrodes can be used to drive local electrochemical reactions within the meniscus while a bias between the QRCEs in the electrolyte channels provides an ion conductance signal that is used to control and position the meniscus on a surface of interest. When brought into contact with a surface, localized high resolution amperometric imaging can be achieved with the two carbon working electrodes with a spatial resolution defined by the meniscus contact area. The substrate can be an insulating material or (semi)conductor, but herein, we focus mainly on conducting substrates that can be connected as a third working electrode. Studies using both aqueous and ionic liquid electrolytes in the probe, together with gold and individual single walled carbon nanotube samples, demonstrate the utility of the technique. Substrate generation-dual tip collection measurements are shown to be characterized by high collection efficiencies (approaching 100%). This hybrid configuration of scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) and scanning electrochemical cell microscopy (SECCM) should be powerful for future applications in electrode mapping, as well as in studies of insulating materials as demonstrated by transient spot redox-titration measurements at an electrostatically charged Teflon surface and at a pristine calcite surface, where a functionalized probe is used to follow the immediate pH change due to dissolution.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kim McKelvey
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, United Kingdom
| | - Joshua C Byers
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, United Kingdom
| | - Aleix G Güell
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, United Kingdom
| | - Alex W Colburn
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, United Kingdom
| | - Robert A Lazenby
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, United Kingdom
| | - Patrick R Unwin
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, United Kingdom
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18
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Kim J, Kim SO, Cho NJ. Alternative configuration scheme for signal amplification with scanning ion conductance microscopy. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2015; 86:023706. [PMID: 25725851 DOI: 10.1063/1.4907360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Scanning Ion Conductance Microscopy (SICM) is an emerging nanotechnology tool to investigate the morphology and charge transport properties of nanomaterials, including soft matter. SICM uses an electrolyte filled nanopipette as a scanning probe and detects current changes based on the distance between the nanopipette apex and the target sample in an electrolyte solution. In conventional SICM, the pipette sensor is excited by applying voltage as it raster scans near the surface. There have been attempts to improve upon raster scanning because it can induce collisions between the pipette sidewalls and target sample, especially for soft, dynamic materials (e.g., biological cells). Recently, Novak et al. demonstrated that hopping probe ion conductance microscopy (HPICM) with an adaptive scan method can improve the image quality obtained by SICM for such materials. However, HPICM is inherently slower than conventional raster scanning. In order to optimize both image quality and scanning speed, we report the development of an alternative configuration scheme for SICM signal amplification that is based on applying current to the nanopipette. This scheme overcomes traditional challenges associated with low bandwidth requirements of conventional SICM. Using our alternative scheme, we demonstrate successful imaging of L929 fibroblast cells and discuss the capabilities of this instrument configuration for future applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joonhui Kim
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, 639798 Singapore
| | - Seong-Oh Kim
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, 639798 Singapore
| | - Nam-Joon Cho
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, 639798 Singapore
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19
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O'Connell MA, Snowden ME, McKelvey K, Gayet F, Shirley I, Haddleton DM, Unwin PR. Positionable vertical microfluidic cell based on electromigration in a theta pipet. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2014; 30:10011-10018. [PMID: 25080122 DOI: 10.1021/la5020412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
A microscale vertical fluidic cell system has been implemented, based on a simple theta pipet pulled to a sharp point (ca. 10-20 μm diameter for the studies herein) and positioned with a high degree of control on a surface. The dual channel arrangement allows an electric field to be generated between an electrode in each compartment of the pipet that can be used to control the electromigration of charged species between the two compartments, across a thin liquid meniscus in contact with the substrate of interest. By visualizing the interfacial region using laser scanning confocal microscopy, the adsorption of fluorescently-labeled materials on surfaces is monitored quantitatively in real time, exemplified through studies of the adsorption of anionic microparticles (1.1 μm diameter) on positively and negatively charged substrate surfaces of poly-L-lysine (PLL) and poly-L-glutamic acid (PGA), respectively, on glass. These studies highlight significant electrostatic effects on adsorption rates and also that the adsorption of these particles is dominated by the three phase meniscus/solid/air boundary. The technique is easily modified to the case of a submerged substrate, resulting in a much larger deposition area. Finite element method modeling is used to calculate local electric field strengths that are used to understand surface deposition patterns. To demonstrate the applicability of the technique to live biological substrates, the delivery of fluorescent particles directly to the surface of a single root hair cell of Zea mays is demonstrated. The mobile pipet allows deposition to be directed to specific regions of the cell, allowing discrete sites to be labeled with particles. Finally, the technique is used to study the uptake of fluorescent polymer molecules to single root hair cells, with quantitative analysis of the adsorption rates of vinyl-sulfonic acid copolymers, with varying rhodamine B content.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael A O'Connell
- Department of Chemistry, and ‡MOAC Doctoral Training Centre, University of Warwick , Coventry CV4 7AL, United Kingdom
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20
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Güell AG, Meadows KE, Dudin PV, Ebejer N, Byers JC, Macpherson JV, Unwin PR. Selection, characterisation and mapping of complex electrochemical processes at individual single-walled carbon nanotubes: the case of serotonin oxidation. Faraday Discuss 2014; 172:439-55. [DOI: 10.1039/c4fd00054d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The electrochemical (EC) oxidation of the neurotransmitter, serotonin, at individual single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) is investigated at high resolution using a novel platform that combines flow-aligned SWNTs with atomic force microscopy, Raman microscopy, electronic conductance measurements, individual SWNT electrochemistry and high-resolution scanning electrochemical cell microscopy (SECCM). SECCM has been used to visualise the EC activity along side-wall sections of metallic SWNTs to assess the extent to which side-walls promote the electrochemistry of this complex multi-step process. Uniform and high EC activity is observed that is consistent with significant reaction at the side-wall, rather than electrochemistry being driven by defects alone. By scanning forward and reverse (trace and retrace) over the same region of a SWNT, it is also possible to assess any blocking of EC activity by serotonin oxidation reaction products. At a physiologically relevant concentration (5 μM), there is no detectable blocking of SWNTs, which can be attributed, at least in part, to the high diffusion rate to an individual, isolated SWNT in the SECCM format. At higher serotonin concentration (2 mM), oligomer formation from oxidation products is much more significant and major blocking of the EC process is observed from line profiles recorded as the SECCM meniscus moves over an SWNT. The SECCM line profile morphology is shown to be highly diagnostic of whether blocking occurs during EC processes. The studies herein add to a growing body of evidence that various EC processes at SWNTs, from simple outer sphere redox reactions to complex multi-step processes, occur readily at pristine SWNTs. The platform described is of general applicability to various types of nanostructures and nanowires.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aleix G. Güell
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Warwick
- Coventry, United Kingdom
| | - Katherine E. Meadows
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Warwick
- Coventry, United Kingdom
- Molecular Organisation and Assembly in Cells Doctoral Training Centre
- University of Warwick
| | - Petr V. Dudin
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Warwick
- Coventry, United Kingdom
| | - Neil Ebejer
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Warwick
- Coventry, United Kingdom
| | - Joshua C. Byers
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Warwick
- Coventry, United Kingdom
| | | | - Patrick R. Unwin
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Warwick
- Coventry, United Kingdom
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21
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Gao Y, Longenbach T, Vitol EA, Orynbayeva Z, Friedman G, Gogotsi Y. One-dimensional nanoprobes for single-cell studies. Nanomedicine (Lond) 2014; 9:153-68. [DOI: 10.2217/nnm.13.196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Owing to variation of individual cells within a population, single-cell studies are of great interest to researchers. Recent developments in nanofabrication technology have made this area increasingly attractive as one-dimensional (1D) nanoscale probes can be manufactured with increasing accuracy. Here, we provide an overview and description of the major designs that have been reported to date. For more details of what applications could be realized and how, based on the probe shapes and designs, we summarize the most recently reported performances of 1D single-cell probes with their advantages and limitations. Minimally invasive probes are required for long-term experiments on single cells. Carbon nanotubes with their unique properties and structure are excellent candidates for multitask robotic intracellular probes. Carbon nanotube-tipped cellular endoscopes are less invasive compared with pipettes or cantilever tips. Advances in nanofabrication techniques have made it possible to produce more consistent nanoscale cellular probes that can capture a variety of information from optical, electrical and chemical signals. In addition, these tools can transfer tiny amounts of fluids and molecular materials in a highly localized fashion for the purpose of analyzing or stimulating a variety of responses at the level of individual cells and even cellular organelles. We conclude with a critical analysis of the current state of the field as well as the major obstacles for further probe development of minimally invasive probes and their widespread use in cell biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Gao
- Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Travis Longenbach
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Elina A Vitol
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Zulfiya Orynbayeva
- Department of Surgery, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19102, USA
- AJ Drexel Nanotechnology Institute, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Gary Friedman
- Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- Department of Surgery, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19102, USA
- AJ Drexel Nanotechnology Institute, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Yury Gogotsi
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
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22
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Rodríguez-Ruiz I, Hammadi Z, Grossier R, Gómez-Morales J, Veesler S. Monitoring picoliter sessile microdroplet dynamics shows that size does not matter. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2013; 29:12628-12632. [PMID: 24070240 DOI: 10.1021/la402735k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
We monitor the dissolution of arrayed picoliter-size sessile microdroplets of the aqueous phase in oil, generated using a recently developed fluidic device. Initial pinning of the microdroplet perimeter leads to a nearly constant contact diameter, thus contraction proceeds via microdroplet (micrometer-diameter) height and contact angle reductions. This confirms that picoliter microdroplets contraction or dissolution due to the selective diffusion of water in oil has comparable dynamics with microliter droplet evaporation in air. We observe a constant microdroplet dissolution rate in different aqueous solutions. The application of this simple model to solvent-diffusion-driven crystallization experiments in confined volumes, for instance, would allow us to determine precisely the concentration in the microdroplet during an experiment and particularly at nucleation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isaac Rodríguez-Ruiz
- Laboratorio de Estudios Cristalográficos, IACT (CSIC-UGR) , Avda. de las Palmeras, 4, 18100 Armilla, Granada, Spain
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23
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Kang W, McNaughton RL, Yavari F, Minary-Jolandan M, Safi A, Espinosa HD. Microfluidic parallel patterning and cellular delivery of molecules with a nanofountain probe. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013; 19:100-9. [PMID: 23897012 DOI: 10.1177/2211068213495395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
This brief report describes a novel tool for microfluidic patterning of biomolecules and delivery of molecules into cells. The microdevice is based on integration of nanofountain probe (NFP) chips with packaging that creates a closed system and enables operation in liquid. The packaged NFP can be easily coupled to a micro/nano manipulator or atomic force microscope for precise position and force control. We demonstrate here the functionality of the device for continuous direct-write parallel patterning on a surface in air and in liquid. Because of the small volume of the probes (~3 pL), we can achieve flow rates as low as 1 fL/s and have dispensed liquid drops with submicron to 10 µm diameters in a liquid environment. Furthermore, we demonstrate that this microdevice can be used for delivery of molecules into single cells by transient permeabilization of the cell membrane (i.e., electroporation). The significant advantage of NFP-based electroporation compared with bulk electroporation and other transfection techniques is that it allows for precise and targeted delivery while minimizing stress to the cell. We discuss the ongoing development of the tool toward automated operation and its potential as a multifunctional device for microarray applications and time-dependent single-cell studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wonmo Kang
- 1Department of Mechanical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
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24
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Schäffer TE. Nanomechanics of molecules and living cells with scanning ion conductance microscopy. Anal Chem 2013; 85:6988-94. [PMID: 23692368 DOI: 10.1021/ac400686k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Hydrodynamic flow through a nanopipet in a scanning ion conductance microscope (SICM) can exert localized forces on a sample surface. These forces can be used for trapping of molecules in lipid bilayers and for mapping the mechanical properties of living cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tilman E Schäffer
- University of Tübingen, Department of Physics and LISA+, Tübingen, Germany
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25
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Grüter RR, Vörös J, Zambelli T. FluidFM as a lithography tool in liquid: spatially controlled deposition of fluorescent nanoparticles. NANOSCALE 2013; 5:1097-1104. [PMID: 23262663 DOI: 10.1039/c2nr33214k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
The atomic force microscope (AFM) is a powerful instrument for nanolithography, which is well characterized in air where the deposition process is steered by capillary action. In contrast, AFM patterning has been seldom achieved in liquid, mostly via electrochemical deposition. This study investigates the pressure-controlled local deposition of nanoparticles in a liquid environment using a FluidFM. Fluorescent 25 nm polystyrene nanospheres were chosen as nanoobjects to be dispensed because they enable both the in situ monitoring of the process by optical microscopy and the ex situ high-resolution characterization of the pattern by e.g. scanning electron microscopy. The FluidFM microchannel was filled with an aqueous solution of negatively charged nanoparticles to be delivered onto a glass surface coated with a polycation. An overpressure in the internal fluidic circuit leads to the deposition of nanoparticle dots and lines under the tip, while the force control regulates the contact between the probe and the surface. The nanoparticle adsorption process depends both on applied pressure and contact time (respectively tip velocity) and can be described using the Langmuir approximation for the random sequential adsorption model. Moreover, we observed that the force setpoint, which does not influence the capillary-driven mechanism in air, indeed affects the hydrodynamic resistance at the tip aperture and therefore the volumetric flow. The described method demonstrates the potential of FluidFM in depositing nano-sized objects in liquid with nanometre precision.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raphael R Grüter
- Laboratory of Biosensors and Bioelectronics, Institute for Biomedical Engineering, ETH Zurich, CH-8092, Switzerland
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26
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Combined AFM—nanopipette cartridge system for actively dispensing femtolitre droplets. JOURNAL OF MICRO-BIO ROBOTICS 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s12213-013-0064-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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27
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McKelvey K, O'Connell MA, Unwin PR. Meniscus confined fabrication of multidimensional conducting polymer nanostructures with scanning electrochemical cell microscopy (SECCM). Chem Commun (Camb) 2013; 49:2986-8. [DOI: 10.1039/c3cc00104k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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28
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Ebejer N, Güell AG, Lai SCS, McKelvey K, Snowden ME, Unwin PR. Scanning electrochemical cell microscopy: a versatile technique for nanoscale electrochemistry and functional imaging. ANNUAL REVIEW OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY (PALO ALTO, CALIF.) 2013; 6:329-51. [PMID: 23560932 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-anchem-062012-092650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Scanning electrochemical cell microscopy (SECCM) is a new pipette-based imaging technique purposely designed to allow simultaneous electrochemical, conductance, and topographical visualization of surfaces and interfaces. SECCM uses a tiny meniscus or droplet, at the end of a double-barreled (theta) pipette, for high-resolution functional imaging and nanoscale electrochemical measurements. Here we introduce this technique and provide an overview of its principles, instrumentation, and theory. We discuss the power of SECCM in resolving complex structure-activity problems and provide considerable new information on electrode processes by referring to key example systems, including graphene, graphite, carbon nanotubes, nanoparticles, and conducting diamond. The many longstanding questions that SECCM has been able to answer during its short existence demonstrate its potential to become a major technique in electrochemistry and interfacial science.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neil Ebejer
- Department of Chemistry, University ofWarwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, United Kingdom
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29
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Wang Y, Kececi K, Velmurugan J, Mirkin MV. Electron transfer/ion transfer mode of scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM): a new tool for imaging and kinetic studies. Chem Sci 2013. [DOI: 10.1039/c3sc50825k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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30
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Clarke RW, Zhukov A, Richards O, Johnson N, Ostanin V, Klenerman D. Pipette–Surface Interaction: Current Enhancement and Intrinsic Force. J Am Chem Soc 2012; 135:322-9. [DOI: 10.1021/ja3094586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Richard W. Clarke
- Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge, CB2 1EW, United
Kingdom
| | - Alexander Zhukov
- Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge, CB2 1EW, United
Kingdom
| | - Owen Richards
- Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge, CB2 1EW, United
Kingdom
| | - Nicholas Johnson
- Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge, CB2 1EW, United
Kingdom
| | - Victor Ostanin
- Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge, CB2 1EW, United
Kingdom
| | - David Klenerman
- Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge, CB2 1EW, United
Kingdom
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31
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Abstract
Scanning ion conductance microscopy (SICM) is a scanning probe technique that utilizes the increase in access resistance that occurs if an electrolyte filled glass micro-pipette is approached towards a poorly conducting surface. Since an increase in resistance can be monitored before the physical contact between scanning probe tip and sample, this technique is particularly useful to investigate the topography of delicate samples such as living cells. SICM has shown its potential in various applications such as high resolution and long-time imaging of living cells or the determination of local changes in cellular volume. Furthermore, SICM has been combined with various techniques such as fluorescence microscopy or patch clamping to reveal localized information about proteins or protein functions. This review details the various advantages and pitfalls of SICM and provides an overview of the recent developments and applications of SICM in biological imaging. Furthermore, we show that in principle, a combination of SICM and ion selective micro-electrodes enables one to monitor the local ion activity surrounding a living cell.
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32
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Adam Seger R, Actis P, Penfold C, Maalouf M, Vilozny B, Pourmand N. Voltage controlled nano-injection system for single-cell surgery. NANOSCALE 2012; 4:5843-6. [PMID: 22899383 PMCID: PMC4406976 DOI: 10.1039/c2nr31700a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Manipulation and analysis of single cells is the next frontier in understanding processes that control the function and fate of cells. Herein we describe a single-cell injection platform based on nanopipettes. The system uses scanning microscopy techniques to detect cell surfaces, and voltage pulses to deliver molecules into individual cells. As a proof of concept, we injected adherent mammalian cells with fluorescent dyes.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Adam Seger
- Department of Biomolecular Engineering, University of California Santa Cruz, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
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33
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The application of nanopipettes to conducting polymer fabrication, imaging and electrochemical characterization. Prog Polym Sci 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2012.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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34
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Chen CC, Zhou Y, Baker LA. Scanning ion conductance microscopy. ANNUAL REVIEW OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY (PALO ALTO, CALIF.) 2012; 5:207-228. [PMID: 22524219 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-anchem-062011-143203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Scanning ion conductance microscopy (SICM) is a versatile type of scanning probe microscopy for studies in molecular biology and materials science. Recent advances in feedback and probe fabrication have greatly increased the resolution, stability, and speed of imaging. Noncontact imaging and the ability to deliver materials to localized areas have made SICM especially fruitful for studies of molecular biology, and many examples of such use have been reported. In this review, we highlight new developments in the operation of SICM and describe some of the most exciting recent studies from this growing field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiao-Chen Chen
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, USA
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35
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Snowden ME, Güell AG, Lai SCS, McKelvey K, Ebejer N, O’Connell MA, Colburn AW, Unwin PR. Scanning Electrochemical Cell Microscopy: Theory and Experiment for Quantitative High Resolution Spatially-Resolved Voltammetry and Simultaneous Ion-Conductance Measurements. Anal Chem 2012; 84:2483-91. [DOI: 10.1021/ac203195h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 176] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Michael E. Snowden
- Department
of Chemistry, and ‡MOAC Doctoral Training Centre, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, United Kingdom
| | - Aleix G. Güell
- Department
of Chemistry, and ‡MOAC Doctoral Training Centre, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, United Kingdom
| | - Stanley C. S. Lai
- Department
of Chemistry, and ‡MOAC Doctoral Training Centre, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, United Kingdom
| | - Kim McKelvey
- Department
of Chemistry, and ‡MOAC Doctoral Training Centre, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, United Kingdom
| | - Neil Ebejer
- Department
of Chemistry, and ‡MOAC Doctoral Training Centre, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, United Kingdom
| | - Michael A. O’Connell
- Department
of Chemistry, and ‡MOAC Doctoral Training Centre, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, United Kingdom
| | - Alexander W. Colburn
- Department
of Chemistry, and ‡MOAC Doctoral Training Centre, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, United Kingdom
| | - Patrick R. Unwin
- Department
of Chemistry, and ‡MOAC Doctoral Training Centre, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, United Kingdom
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Takahashi Y, Shevchuk AI, Novak P, Zhang Y, Ebejer N, Macpherson JV, Unwin PR, Pollard AJ, Roy D, Clifford CA, Shiku H, Matsue T, Klenerman D, Korchev YE. Multifunctional nanoprobes for nanoscale chemical imaging and localized chemical delivery at surfaces and interfaces. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2011; 50:9638-42. [PMID: 21882305 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201102796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 227] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2011] [Revised: 07/14/2010] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
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37
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Takahashi Y, Shevchuk AI, Novak P, Zhang Y, Ebejer N, Macpherson JV, Unwin PR, Pollard AJ, Roy D, Clifford CA, Shiku H, Matsue T, Klenerman D, Korchev YE. Multifunctional Nanoprobes for Nanoscale Chemical Imaging and Localized Chemical Delivery at Surfaces and Interfaces. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2011. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201102796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
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38
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Perrault CM, Qasaimeh MA, Brastaviceanu T, Anderson K, Kabakibo Y, Juncker D. Integrated microfluidic probe station. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2010; 81:115107. [PMID: 21133501 DOI: 10.1063/1.3497302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
The microfluidic probe (MFP) consists of a flat, blunt tip with two apertures for the injection and reaspiration of a microjet into a solution--thus hydrodynamically confining the microjet--and is operated atop an inverted microscope that enables live imaging. By scanning across a surface, the microjet can be used for surface processing with the capability of both depositing and removing material; as it operates under immersed conditions, sensitive biological materials and living cells can be processed. During scanning, the MFP is kept immobile and centered over the objective of the inverted microscope, a few micrometers above a substrate that is displaced by moving the microscope stage and that is flushed continuously with the microjet. For consistent and reproducible surface processing, the gap between the MFP and the substrate, the MFP's alignment, the scanning speed, the injection and aspiration flow rates, and the image capture need all to be controlled and synchronized. Here, we present an automated MFP station that integrates all of these functionalities and automates the key operational parameters. A custom software program is used to control an independent motorized Z stage for adjusting the gap, a motorized microscope stage for scanning the substrate, up to 16 syringe pumps for injecting and aspirating fluids, and an inverted fluorescence microscope equipped with a charge-coupled device camera. The parallelism between the MFP and the substrate is adjusted using manual goniometer at the beginning of the experiment. The alignment of the injection and aspiration apertures along the scanning axis is performed using a newly designed MFP screw holder. We illustrate the integrated MFP station by the programmed, automated patterning of fluorescently labeled biotin on a streptavidin-coated surface.
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Affiliation(s)
- C M Perrault
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, McGill University, Montréal, Quebec, H3A 1A4, Canada
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39
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Ebejer N, Schnippering M, Colburn AW, Edwards MA, Unwin PR. Localized High Resolution Electrochemistry and Multifunctional Imaging: Scanning Electrochemical Cell Microscopy. Anal Chem 2010; 82:9141-5. [DOI: 10.1021/ac102191u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 214] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Neil Ebejer
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, United Kingdom
| | - Mathias Schnippering
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, United Kingdom
| | - Alexander W. Colburn
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, United Kingdom
| | - Martin A. Edwards
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, United Kingdom
| | - Patrick R. Unwin
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, United Kingdom
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40
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Takahashi Y, Murakami Y, Nagamine K, Shiku H, Aoyagi S, Yasukawa T, Kanzaki M, Matsue T. Topographic imaging of convoluted surface of live cells by scanning ion conductance microscopy in a standing approach mode. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2010; 12:10012-7. [PMID: 20485766 DOI: 10.1039/c002607g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Scanning ion conductance microscopy (SICM) using a nanopipette as a probe and ionic current as a feedback signal was introduced as a novel technique to study live cells in a physiological environment. To avoid contact between the pipette tip and cells during the conventional lateral scanning mode, we adopted a standing approach (STA) mode in which the probe was moved vertically to first approach and then retracted from the cell surface at each measurement point on an XY plane. The STA mode ensured non-contact imaging of the topography of live cells and for a wide range of uneven substrates (500 x 300 microm to 5 x 5 microm). We also used a field-programmable gate array (FPGA) board to enhance feedback distance regulation. FPGA dramatically increased the feedback speed and decreased the imaging time (450 s per image) with enhanced accuracy and quality of live cell images. To evaluate the potential of the STA mode for SICM, we carried out imaging of a convoluted surface of live cell in various scan ranges and estimated the spatial resolutions of these images.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasufumi Takahashi
- Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Tohoku University, Aramaki Aoba 6-6-11-605, Sendai 980-8579
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41
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Bellido E, de Miguel R, Ruiz-Molina D, Lostao A, Maspoch D. Controlling the number of proteins with dip-pen nanolithography. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2010; 22:352-355. [PMID: 20217717 DOI: 10.1002/adma.200902372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Elena Bellido
- Centre d'Investigació en Nanociència i Nanotecnologia (ICN-CSIC), Esfera UAB, Cerdanyola del Vallès 08193, Spain
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Abstract
Concentration of molecules within the tips of nanopipettes when applying a DC voltage is herein investigated using finite-element simulations. The ion concentrations and fluxes due to diffusion, electro-migration, and electro-osmotic flow, and the electric potential are determined by the simultaneous solution of the Nernst-Planck, Poisson, and Navier-Stokes equations within the water solution containing sodium and chloride ions and negatively charged molecules. The electric potential within the pipette glass wall is at the same time determined by the Poisson equation together with appropriate boundary conditions and accounts for a field effect through the wall. Fixed negative surface charge on both the internal and external glass surfaces of the nanopipette is included together with the field effect through the glass wall to account for the electric double layer and the electro-osmosis. The inclusion of the field effect through the pipette wall is new compared to previous modeling of similar structures and is shown to be crucial for the behavior at the tip. It is demonstrated that the concentration of molecules is a consequence of ionic charge accumulation at the tip screening the electric field, thereby slowing down the electrophoretic motion of the molecules, which is further slowed down or stopped by the oppositely directed electro-osmosis. It is also shown that the trapping is very sensitive to the properties of the molecule, that is, its electrophoretic mobility and diffusion coefficient, the properties of the pipette, the ionic strength of the solution, and the applied electric field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nils Calander
- Department of Physics, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia.
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43
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Morris CA, Friedman AK, Baker LA. Applications of nanopipettes in the analytical sciences. Analyst 2010; 135:2190-202. [DOI: 10.1039/c0an00156b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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Abstract
At present, technical hurdles remain in probing biochemical processes in living cells and organisms at nanometre spatial resolution, millisecond time resolution and with high specificity and single-molecule sensitivity. Owing to its unique shape, size and electrical properties, the nanopipette has been used to obtain high-resolution topographic images of live cells under physiological conditions, and to create nanoscale features by controlled delivery of biomolecules. In the present paper, I discuss recent progress in the development of a family of new methods for nanosensing and nanomanipulation using nanopipettes.
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45
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Méndez-Vilas A, Jódar-Reyes AB, González-Martín ML. Ultrasmall liquid droplets on solid surfaces: production, imaging, and relevance for current wetting research. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2009; 5:1366-1390. [PMID: 19507183 DOI: 10.1002/smll.200800819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
The investigation of micro- and nanoscale droplets on solid surfaces offers a wide range of research opportunities both at a fundamental and an applied level. On the fundamental side, advances in the techniques for production and imaging of such ultrasmall droplets will allow wetting theories to be tested down to the nanometer scale, where they predict the significant influence of phenomena such as the contact line tension or evaporation, which can be neglected in the case of macroscopic droplets. On the applied side, these advances will pave the way for characterizing a diverse set of industrially important materials such as textile or biomedical micro- and nanofibers, powdered solids, and topographically or chemically nanopatterned surfaces, as well as micro-and nanoscale devices, with relevance in diverse industries from biomedical to petroleum engineering. Here, the basic principles of wetting at the micro- and nanoscales are presented, and the essential characteristics of the main experimental techniques available for producing and imaging these droplets are described. In addition, the main fundamental and applied results are reviewed. The most problematic aspects of studying such ultrasmall droplets, and the developments that are in progress that are thought to circumvent them in the coming years, are highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Méndez-Vilas
- Department of Applied Physics, University of Extremadura Avda. Elvas s/n, 06071 Badajoz, Spain.
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46
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Liu Y, Jung SY, Collier CP. Shear-Driven Redistribution of Surfactant Affects Enzyme Activity in Well-Mixed Femtoliter Droplets. Anal Chem 2009; 81:4922-8. [DOI: 10.1021/ac900624h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yu Liu
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, and Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, P.O. Box 2008, MS-6493, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831
| | - Seung-Yong Jung
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, and Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, P.O. Box 2008, MS-6493, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831
| | - C. Patrick Collier
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, and Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, P.O. Box 2008, MS-6493, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831
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Abstract
Nanopipette technology can uniquely identify biomolecules such as proteins based on differences in size, shape, and electrical charge. These differences are determined by the detection of changes in ionic current as the proteins interact with the nanopipette tip coated with probe molecules. Here we show that electrostatic, biotin-streptavidin, and antibody-antigen interactions on the nanopipette tip surface affect ionic current flowing through a 50-nm pore. Highly charged polymers interacting with the glass surface modulated the rectification property of the nanopipette electrode. Affinity-based binding between the probes tethered to the surface and their target proteins caused a change in the ionic current due to a partial blockade or an altered surface charge. These findings suggest that nanopipettes functionalized with appropriate molecular recognition elements can be used as nanosensors in biomedical and biological research.
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48
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Shiku H, Yamakawa T, Nashimoto Y, Takahashi Y, Torisawa YS, Yasukawa T, Ito-Sasaki T, Yokoo M, Abe H, Kambara H, Matsue T. A microfluidic dual capillary probe to collect messenger RNA from adherent cells and spheroids. Anal Biochem 2009; 385:138-42. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2008.10.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2008] [Revised: 10/28/2008] [Accepted: 10/28/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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49
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Pignataro B. Nanostructured molecular surfaces: advances in investigation and patterning tools. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009. [DOI: 10.1039/b817510a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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50
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Huang J, Quan B, Liu M, Wei Z, Jiang L. Conducting Polypyrrole Conical Nanocontainers: Formation Mechanism and Voltage Switchable Property. Macromol Rapid Commun 2008. [DOI: 10.1002/marc.200800196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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