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Kralj S, Marchesan S. Bioinspired Magnetic Nanochains for Medicine. Pharmaceutics 2021; 13:1262. [PMID: 34452223 PMCID: PMC8398308 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics13081262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2021] [Revised: 08/12/2021] [Accepted: 08/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) have been widely used for medicine, both in therapy and diagnosis. Their guided assembly into anisotropic structures, such as nanochains, has recently opened new research avenues; for instance, targeted drug delivery. Interestingly, magnetic nanochains do occur in nature, and they are thought to be involved in the navigation and geographic orientation of a variety of animals and bacteria, although many open questions on their formation and functioning remain. In this review, we will analyze what is known about the natural formation of magnetic nanochains, as well as the synthetic protocols to produce them in the laboratory, to conclude with an overview of medical applications and an outlook on future opportunities in this exciting research field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Slavko Kralj
- Department for Materials Synthesis, Jožef Stefan Institute, Jamova 39, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana, Aškerčeva 7, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Silvia Marchesan
- Department of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Trieste, 34127 Trieste, Italy;
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2
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Orientational dynamics of magnetotactic bacteria in Earth's magnetic field-a simulation study. J Biol Phys 2021; 47:79-93. [PMID: 33687635 DOI: 10.1007/s10867-021-09566-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2020] [Accepted: 02/04/2021] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
Abstract
We investigate through simulations the phenomena of magnetoreception to enable an understanding of the minimum requirements of a fail-safe mechanism, operational at the cellular level, to sense a weak magnetic field at ambient temperature in a biologically active environment. To do this, we use magnetotactic bacteria (MTB) as our model system. The magnetic field sensing ability of these bacteria is due to the presence of magnetosomes, which are internal membrane-bound organelles that contain an iron-based magnetic mineral crystal. These magnetosomes are usually found arranged in a chain aligned with the long axis of the bacterial body. This arrangement yields an overall magnetic dipole moment to the bacterial cell. To simulate this orientation process, we set up a rotational Langevin stochastic differential equation and solve it repeatedly over appropriate time steps for isolated spherical shaped MTB as well as for a more realistic model of spheroidal MTB with flagella. The orientation process appears to depend on shape parameters with spheroidal MTB showing a slower response time compared to spherical MTB. Further, our simulation also reveals that the alignment to the external magnetic field is more robust for an MTB when compared to single magnetosome. For the simulation involving magnetosomes, we include an extra torque that arises from the twisting of an attachment tether and enhance the viscosity of the surrounding medium to mimic intracellular conditions in the governing Langevin equation. The response time of alignment is found to be substantially reduced when one includes a dipole interaction term with a neighboring magnetosome and the alignment becomes less robust with increase in inter dipole distance. The alignment process can thereby be said to be very sensitively dependent on the distance between magnetosomes. Simulating the process of alignment between two neighboring magnetosomes, both in the absence and presence of an ambient magnetic field, we conclude that alignment between these dipoles at the distances typical in an MTB is highly probable and it would be the locked unit that responds to changes in the external magnetic field.
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3
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Liu L, Wu J, Gao J, Lu X. Bacteria-Derived Nanoparticles: Multifunctional Containers for Diagnostic and Therapeutic Applications. Adv Healthc Mater 2020; 9:e2000893. [PMID: 32945152 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202000893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2020] [Revised: 08/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
In recent decades, investigations on bacteria-derived materials have progressed from being a proof of concept to a means for improving traditional biomaterials. Owing to their unique characteristics, such as gene manipulation, rapid proliferation, and specific targeting, bacteria-derived materials have provided remarkable flexibility in applied biomedical functionalization. In this review, bacteria-derived nanoparticles are focused on as a promising biomaterial, introducing several bacterial species with great potential and useful strategies for fabrication. Through well-designed choices, bacteria-derived nanoparticles can be exploited to obtain functional bacteria-mimicking materials for a variety of applications, including cargo delivery, imaging, therapy, and immune modulation. Finally, the prospects and challenges of bacteria-derived nanoparticles are discussed. Particularly, safety concerns regarding the use of bacteria and their immunogenicity remain major obstacles to the clinical application of bacteria-derived nanoparticles and these concerns are immediate priorities for the research community.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Liu
- Department of Pharmacy Zhejiang University School of Medicine First Affiliated Hospital Hangzhou 310003 P. R. China
- Institute of Pharmaceutics College of Pharmaceutical Sciences Zhejiang University Hangzhou 310058 P. R. China
| | - Jiahe Wu
- Institute of Pharmaceutics College of Pharmaceutical Sciences Zhejiang University Hangzhou 310058 P. R. China
| | - Jianqing Gao
- Institute of Pharmaceutics College of Pharmaceutical Sciences Zhejiang University Hangzhou 310058 P. R. China
| | - Xiaoyang Lu
- Department of Pharmacy Zhejiang University School of Medicine First Affiliated Hospital Hangzhou 310003 P. R. China
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4
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Abstract
Magnetotactic bacteria are aquatic or sediment-dwelling microorganisms able to take advantage of the Earth's magnetic field for directed motility. The source of this amazing trait is magnetosomes, unique organelles used to synthesize single nanometer-sized crystals of magnetic iron minerals that are queued up to build an intracellular compass. Most of these microorganisms cannot be cultivated under controlled conditions, much less genetically engineered, with only few exceptions. However, two of the genetically amenable Magnetospirillum species have emerged as tractable model organisms to study magnetosome formation and magnetotaxis. Recently, much has been revealed about the process of magnetosome biogenesis and dedicated structures for magnetosome dynamics and positioning, which suggest an unexpected cellular intricacy of these organisms. In this minireview, we summarize new insights and place the molecular mechanisms of magnetosome formation in the context of the complex cell biology of Magnetospirillum spp. First, we provide an overview on magnetosome vesicle synthesis and magnetite biomineralization, followed by a discussion of the perceptions of dynamic organelle positioning and its biological implications, which highlight that magnetotactic bacteria have evolved sophisticated mechanisms to construct, incorporate, and inherit a unique navigational device. Finally, we discuss the impact of magnetotaxis on motility and its interconnection with chemotaxis, showing that magnetotactic bacteria are outstandingly adapted to lifestyle and habitat.
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5
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Bender P, Marcano L, Orue I, Alba Venero D, Honecker D, Fernández Barquín L, Muela A, Fdez-Gubieda ML. Probing the stability and magnetic properties of magnetosome chains in freeze-dried magnetotactic bacteria. NANOSCALE ADVANCES 2020; 2:1115-1121. [PMID: 36133039 PMCID: PMC9419280 DOI: 10.1039/c9na00434c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2019] [Accepted: 02/26/2020] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Magnetospirillum gryphiswaldense biosynthesize high-quality magnetite nanoparticles, called magnetosomes, and arrange them into a chain that behaves like a magnetic compass. Here we perform magnetometry and polarized small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) experiments on a powder of freeze-dried and immobilized M. gryphiswaldense. We confirm that the individual magnetosomes are single-domain nanoparticles and that an alignment of the particle moments along the magnetic field direction occurs exclusively by an internal, coherent rotation. Our magnetometry results of the bacteria powder indicate an absence of dipolar interactions between the particle chains and a dominant uniaxial magnetic anisotropy. Finally, we can verify by SANS that the chain structure within the immobilized, freeze-dried bacteria is preserved also after application of large magnetic fields up to 1 T.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philipp Bender
- Department of Physics and Materials Science, University of Luxembourg 1511 Luxembourg Grand Duchy of Luxembourg +352 46 66 44 36521 +352 46 66 44 6521
| | - Lourdes Marcano
- Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin für Materialien und Energie 12489 Berlin Germany
- Dpto. Electricidad y Electrónica, Universidad Del País Vasco - UPV/EHU 48940 Leioa Spain
| | - Iñaki Orue
- SGIker, Universidad Del País Vasco - UPV/EHU 48940 Leioa Spain
| | - Diego Alba Venero
- ISIS Neutron and Muon Facility, Rutherford Appleton Laboratory Chilton OX11 0QX UK
| | - Dirk Honecker
- Large Scale Structures Group, Institut Laue-Langevin 38042 Grenoble France
| | | | - Alicia Muela
- BCMaterials, Basque Center for Materials, Applications and Nanostructures, UPV/EHU Science Spain
- Dpto. Immunologia, Microbiologia y Parasitologia, Universidad Del País Vasco - UPV/EHU 48940 Leioa Spain
| | - M Luisa Fdez-Gubieda
- Dpto. Electricidad y Electrónica, Universidad Del País Vasco - UPV/EHU 48940 Leioa Spain
- BCMaterials, Basque Center for Materials, Applications and Nanostructures, UPV/EHU Science Spain
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6
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The in vivo mechanics of the magnetotactic backbone as revealed by correlative FLIM-FRET and STED microscopy. Sci Rep 2019; 9:19615. [PMID: 31873083 PMCID: PMC6928011 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-55804-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2019] [Accepted: 11/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Protein interaction and protein imaging strongly benefit from the advancements in time-resolved and superresolution fluorescence microscopic techniques. However, the techniques were typically applied separately and ex vivo because of technical challenges and the absence of suitable fluorescent protein pairs. Here, we show correlative in vivo fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy Förster resonance energy transfer (FLIM-FRET) and stimulated emission depletion (STED) microscopy to unravel protein mechanics and structure in living cells. We use magnetotactic bacteria as a model system where two proteins, MamJ and MamK, are used to assemble magnetic particles called magnetosomes. The filament polymerizes out of MamK and the magnetosomes are connected via the linker MamJ. Our system reveals that bacterial filamentous structures are more fragile than the connection of biomineralized particles to this filament. More importantly, we anticipate the technique to find wide applicability for the study and quantification of biological processes in living cells and at high resolution.
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7
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Ren E, Lei Z, Wang J, Zhang Y, Liu G. Magnetosome Modification: From Bio-Nano Engineering Toward Nanomedicine. ADVANCED THERAPEUTICS 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/adtp.201800080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- En Ren
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics and Center for Molecular Imaging and Translational Medicine; School of Public Health; Xiamen University; Xiamen 361102 China
| | - Zhao Lei
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics and Center for Molecular Imaging and Translational Medicine; School of Public Health; Xiamen University; Xiamen 361102 China
| | - Junqing Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics and Center for Molecular Imaging and Translational Medicine; School of Public Health; Xiamen University; Xiamen 361102 China
| | - Yang Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics and Center for Molecular Imaging and Translational Medicine; School of Public Health; Xiamen University; Xiamen 361102 China
| | - Gang Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology; Innovation Center for Cell Biology; School of Life Sciences; Xiamen University; Xiamen 361102 China
- The MOE Key Laboratory of Spectrochemical Analysis & Instrumentation; College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering; Xiamen University; Xiamen 361005 China
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8
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Magnetic-field induced rotation of magnetosome chains in silicified magnetotactic bacteria. Sci Rep 2018; 8:7699. [PMID: 29769616 PMCID: PMC5955880 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-25972-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2017] [Accepted: 04/19/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding the biological processes enabling magnetotactic bacteria to maintain oriented chains of magnetic iron-bearing nanoparticles called magnetosomes is a major challenge. The study aimed to constrain the role of an external applied magnetic field on the alignment of magnetosome chains in Magnetospirillum magneticum AMB-1 magnetotactic bacteria immobilized within a hydrated silica matrix. A deviation of the chain orientation was evidenced, without significant impact on cell viability, which was preserved after the field was turned-off. Transmission electron microscopy showed that the crystallographic orientation of the nanoparticles within the chains were preserved. Off-axis electron holography evidenced that the change in magnetosome orientation was accompanied by a shift from parallel to anti-parallel interactions between individual nanocrystals. The field-induced destructuration of the chain occurs according to two possible mechanisms: (i) each magnetosome responds individually and reorients in the magnetic field direction and/or (ii) short magnetosome chains deviate in the magnetic field direction. This work enlightens the strong dynamic character of the magnetosome assembly and widens the potentialities of magnetotactic bacteria in bionanotechnology.
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9
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Orue I, Marcano L, Bender P, García-Prieto A, Valencia S, Mawass MA, Gil-Cartón D, Alba Venero D, Honecker D, García-Arribas A, Fernández Barquín L, Muela A, Fdez-Gubieda ML. Configuration of the magnetosome chain: a natural magnetic nanoarchitecture. NANOSCALE 2018; 10:7407-7419. [PMID: 29557439 DOI: 10.1039/c7nr08493e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Magnetospirillum gryphiswaldense is a microorganism with the ability to biomineralize magnetite nanoparticles, called magnetosomes, and arrange them into a chain that behaves like a magnetic compass. Rather than straight lines, magnetosome chains are slightly bent, as evidenced by electron cryotomography. Our experimental and theoretical results suggest that due to the competition between the magnetocrystalline and shape anisotropies, the effective magnetic moment of individual magnetosomes is tilted out of the [111] crystallographic easy axis of magnetite. This tilt does not affect the direction of the chain net magnetic moment, which remains along the [111] axis, but explains the arrangement of magnetosomes in helical-like shaped chains. Indeed, we demonstrate that the chain shape can be reproduced by considering an interplay between the magnetic dipolar interactions between magnetosomes, ruled by the orientation of the magnetosome magnetic moment, and a lipid/protein-based mechanism, modeled as an elastic recovery force exerted on the magnetosomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Orue
- SGIker, Universidad del País Vasco - UPV/EHU, 48940 Leioa, Spain
| | - L Marcano
- Dpto. Electricidad y Electrónica, Universidad del País Vasco - UPV/EHU, 48940 Leioa, Spain.
| | - P Bender
- CITIMAC, Universidad de Cantabria, 39005 Santander, Spain
| | - A García-Prieto
- Dpto. Física Aplicada I, Universidad del País Vasco - UPV/EHU, 48013 Bilbao, Spain and BCMaterials, Basque Center for Materials, Applications and Nanostructures, UPV/EHU Science Park, 48940 Leioa, Spain
| | - S Valencia
- Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin für Materialien und Energie, Albert-Einstein-Str. 15, 12489 Berlin, Germany
| | - M A Mawass
- Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin für Materialien und Energie, Albert-Einstein-Str. 15, 12489 Berlin, Germany
| | - D Gil-Cartón
- Structural Biology Unit, CIC bioGUNE, CIBERehd, 48160 Derio, Spain
| | - D Alba Venero
- ISIS, STFC Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Chilton, Didcot OX11 0QX, UK
| | - D Honecker
- Institut Laue-Langevin, 38042 Grenoble, France
| | - A García-Arribas
- Dpto. Electricidad y Electrónica, Universidad del País Vasco - UPV/EHU, 48940 Leioa, Spain. and BCMaterials, Basque Center for Materials, Applications and Nanostructures, UPV/EHU Science Park, 48940 Leioa, Spain
| | | | - A Muela
- BCMaterials, Basque Center for Materials, Applications and Nanostructures, UPV/EHU Science Park, 48940 Leioa, Spain and Dpto. Inmunología, Microbiología y Parasitología, Universidad del País Vasco - UPV/EHU, 48940 Leioa, Spain
| | - M L Fdez-Gubieda
- Dpto. Electricidad y Electrónica, Universidad del País Vasco - UPV/EHU, 48940 Leioa, Spain. and BCMaterials, Basque Center for Materials, Applications and Nanostructures, UPV/EHU Science Park, 48940 Leioa, Spain
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10
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Kiani B, Faivre D, Klumpp S. Self-organization and stability of magnetosome chains-A simulation study. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0190265. [PMID: 29315342 PMCID: PMC5760029 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0190265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2017] [Accepted: 12/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Magnetotactic bacteria orient in magnetic fields with the help of their magnetosome chain, a linear structure of membrane enclosed magnetic nanoparticles (magnetosomes) anchored to a cytoskeletal filament. Here, we use simulations to study the assembly and the stability of magnetosome chains. We introduce a computational model describing the attachment of the magnetosomes to the filament and their magnetic interactions. We show that the filamentous backbone is crucial for the robust assembly of the magnetic particles into a linear chain, which in turn is key for the functionality of the chain in cellular orientation and magnetically directed swimming. In addition, we simulate the response to an external magnetic field that is rotated away from the axis of the filament, an experimental method used to probe the mechanical stability of the chain. The competition between alignment along the filament and alignment with the external fields leads to the rupture of a chain if the applied field exceeeds a threshold value. These observations are in agreement with previous experiments at the population level. Beyond that, our simulations provide a detailed picture of chain rupture at the single cell level, which is found to happen through two abrupt events, which both depend on the field strength and orientation. The re-formation of the chain structure after such rupture is found to be strongly sped up in the presence of a magnetic field parallel to the filament, an observation that may also be of interest for the design of self-healing materials. Our simulations underline the dynamic nature of the magnetosome chain. More generally, they show the rich complexity of self-assembly in systems with competing driving forces for alignment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bahareh Kiani
- Department Theory & Bio-Systems, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Science Park Golm 14424 Potsdam, Germany
- Department Biomaterials, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Science Park Golm, 14424 Potsdam, Germany
- * E-mail: (BK); (SK)
| | - Damien Faivre
- Department Biomaterials, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Science Park Golm, 14424 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Stefan Klumpp
- Department Theory & Bio-Systems, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Science Park Golm 14424 Potsdam, Germany
- Institute for Nonlinear Dynamics, Georg August University of Goettingen, Friedrich-Hund-Platz 1, 37077 Goettingen, Germany
- * E-mail: (BK); (SK)
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11
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Mosayebi J, Kiyasatfar M, Laurent S. Synthesis, Functionalization, and Design of Magnetic Nanoparticles for Theranostic Applications. Adv Healthc Mater 2017; 6. [PMID: 28990364 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.201700306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2017] [Revised: 06/14/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
In order to translate nanotechnology into medical practice, magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) have been presented as a class of non-invasive nanomaterials for numerous biomedical applications. In particular, MNPs have opened a door for simultaneous diagnosis and brisk treatment of diseases in the form of theranostic agents. This review highlights the recent advances in preparation and utilization of MNPs from the synthesis and functionalization steps to the final design consideration in evading the body immune system for therapeutic and diagnostic applications with addressing the most recent examples of the literature in each section. This study provides a conceptual framework of a wide range of synthetic routes classified mainly as wet chemistry, state-of-the-art microfluidic reactors, and biogenic routes, along with the most popular coating materials to stabilize resultant MNPs. Additionally, key aspects of prolonging the half-life of MNPs via overcoming the sequential biological barriers are covered through unraveling the biophysical interactions at the bio-nano interface and giving a set of criteria to efficiently modulate MNPs' physicochemical properties. Furthermore, concepts of passive and active targeting for successful cell internalization, by respectively exploiting the unique properties of cancers and novel targeting ligands are described in detail. Finally, this study extensively covers the recent developments in magnetic drug targeting and hyperthermia as therapeutic applications of MNPs. In addition, multi-modal imaging via fusion of magnetic resonance imaging, and also innovative magnetic particle imaging with other imaging techniques for early diagnosis of diseases are extensively provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jalal Mosayebi
- Department of Mechanical Engineering; Urmia University; Urmia 5756151818 Iran
| | - Mehdi Kiyasatfar
- Department of Mechanical Engineering; Urmia University; Urmia 5756151818 Iran
| | - Sophie Laurent
- Laboratory of NMR and Molecular Imaging; University of Mons; Mons Belgium
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12
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Boltz HH, Klumpp S. Buckling of elastic filaments by discrete magnetic moments. THE EUROPEAN PHYSICAL JOURNAL. E, SOFT MATTER 2017; 40:86. [PMID: 29019166 DOI: 10.1140/epje/i2017-11576-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2017] [Accepted: 09/19/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
We study the buckling of an idealized, semiflexible filament along whose contour magnetic moments are placed. We give analytic expressions for the critical stiffness of the filament below which it buckles due to the magnetic compression. For this, we consider various scenarios of the attachment of the magnetic particles to the filament. One possible application for this model are the magnetosome chains of magnetotactic bacteria. An estimate of the critical bending stiffness indicates that buckling may occur within the range of biologically relevant parameters and suggests a role for the bending stiffness of the filament to stabilize the filament against buckling, which would compromise the functional relevance of the bending stiffness of the used filament.
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Affiliation(s)
- Horst-Holger Boltz
- Institute for Nonlinear Dynamics, University of Göttingen, 37077, Göttingen, Germany.
| | - Stefan Klumpp
- Institute for Nonlinear Dynamics, University of Göttingen, 37077, Göttingen, Germany
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13
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Ghaisari S, Winklhofer M, Strauch P, Klumpp S, Faivre D. Magnetosome Organization in Magnetotactic Bacteria Unraveled by Ferromagnetic Resonance Spectroscopy. Biophys J 2017; 113:637-644. [PMID: 28793218 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2017.06.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2016] [Revised: 05/24/2017] [Accepted: 06/08/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Magnetotactic bacteria form assemblies of magnetic nanoparticles called magnetosomes. These magnetosomes are typically arranged in chains, but other forms of assemblies such as clusters can be observed in some species and genetic mutants. As such, the bacteria have developed as a model for the understanding of how organization of particles can influence the magnetic properties. Here, we use ferromagnetic resonance spectroscopy to measure the magnetic anisotropies in different strains of Magnetosprillum gryphiswaldense MSR-1, a bacterial species that is amendable to genetic mutations. We combine our experimental results with a model describing the spectra. The model includes chain imperfections and misalignments following a Fisher distribution function, in addition to the intrinsic magnetic properties of the magnetosomes. Therefore, by applying the model to analyze the ferromagnetic resonance data, the distribution of orientations in the bulk sample can be retrieved in addition to the average magnetosome arrangement. In this way, we quantitatively characterize the magnetosome arrangement in both wild-type cells and ΔmamJ mutants, which exhibit differing magnetosome organization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Ghaisari
- Department of Biomaterials, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Potsdam, Germany; Department of Theory and Bio-Systems, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Michael Winklhofer
- IBU, School of Mathematics and Science, University of Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany
| | - Peter Strauch
- Institute of Chemistry, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Stefan Klumpp
- Institute for Nonlinear Dynamics, Georg-August University Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany; Department of Theory and Bio-Systems, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Damien Faivre
- Department of Biomaterials, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Potsdam, Germany.
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14
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Talib A, Khan Z, Bokhari H, Hidayathula S, Jilani G, Khan AA. Respiring cellular nano-magnets. MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING. C, MATERIALS FOR BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS 2017; 80:526-531. [PMID: 28866196 DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2017.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2016] [Revised: 05/30/2017] [Accepted: 07/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Magnetotactic bacteria provide an interesting example for the biosynthesis of magnetic (Fe3O4 or Fe3S4) nanoparticles, synthesized through a process known as biologically controlled mineralization, resulting in complex monodispersed, and nanostructures with unique magnetic properties. In this work, we report a novel aerobic bacterial strain isolated from sludge of an oil refinery. Microscopic and staining analysis revealed that it was a gram positive rod with the capability to thrive in a medium (9K) supplemented, with Fe2+ ions at an acidic pH (~3.2). The magnetic behaviour of these cells was tested by their alignment towards a permanent magnet, and later on confirmed by magnetometry analysis. The X-ray diffraction studies proved the cellular biosynthesis of magnetite nanoparticles inside the bacteria. This novel, bio-nano-magnet, could pave the way for green synthesis of magnetic nanoparticles to be used in industrial and medical applications such as MRI, magnetic hyperthermia and ferrofluids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayesha Talib
- Department of Biosciences, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Park Road, Tarlai Kalan, 45550 Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Zanib Khan
- Department of Microbiology, Government Post Graduate College No. 2, Mandian, Abbottabad, Pakistan
| | - Habib Bokhari
- Department of Biosciences, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Park Road, Tarlai Kalan, 45550 Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Syed Hidayathula
- College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, 11362 Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ghulam Jilani
- Department of Soil Sciences, Pir Mehr Ali Shah ARID Agriculture University, Shamsabad, Murree Road, Rawalpindi, Pakistan
| | - Abid Ali Khan
- Department of Biosciences, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Park Road, Tarlai Kalan, 45550 Islamabad, Pakistan.
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15
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Xiang Z, Yang X, Xu J, Lai W, Wang Z, Hu Z, Tian J, Geng L, Fang Q. Tumor detection using magnetosome nanoparticles functionalized with a newly screened EGFR/HER2 targeting peptide. Biomaterials 2016; 115:53-64. [PMID: 27888699 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2016.11.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2016] [Revised: 11/15/2016] [Accepted: 11/16/2016] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
A novel peptide (P75) targeting EGFR and HER2 is successfully screened from a one-bead-one-compound (OBOC) library containing approximately 2 × 105 peptides built with the aid of computational simulation. In vitro and in vivo analyses show that P75 binds to human epithelial growth factor receptor (EGFR) with nanomolar affinity and to epithelial growth factor receptor-2 (HER2) with a lower affinity but comparable to other reported peptides. The peptide is used to modify the surface of magnetosome nanoparticles (NPs) for targeted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). In vitro and in vivo fluorescence imaging results suggest peptide P75 modified magnetosomes (Mag-P75) specifically bind to MDA-MB-468 and SKBR3 cells as well as xenograft tumors with surprisingly low accumulation in other organs including liver and kidney. In vivo T2-weighted MR imaging studies of the xenograft tumors from SKBR3 and MDA-MB-468 cells show obviously negative contrast enhancement. The high affinity and specificity of P75 to EGFR and HER2 positive tumors, together with the success of peptide functionalized magnetosome NPs for targeted MRI demonstrate the potential of this peptide being used in the EGFR and HER2 positive tumors diagnosis and therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhichu Xiang
- CAS Key Laboratory for Biomedical Effects of Nanomaterials & Nanosafety, National Center for Nanoscience and Technology, Beijing 100190, China; CAS Center for Excellence in Nanoscience, National Center for Nanoscience and Technology, Beijing 100190, China; Sino-Danish Center for Education and Research, Beijing 101408, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Xiaoliang Yang
- CAS Key Laboratory for Biomedical Effects of Nanomaterials & Nanosafety, National Center for Nanoscience and Technology, Beijing 100190, China; CAS Center for Excellence in Nanoscience, National Center for Nanoscience and Technology, Beijing 100190, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Junjie Xu
- State Key Laboratories for Agro-biotechnology and College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Wenjia Lai
- CAS Key Laboratory for Biomedical Effects of Nanomaterials & Nanosafety, National Center for Nanoscience and Technology, Beijing 100190, China; CAS Center for Excellence in Nanoscience, National Center for Nanoscience and Technology, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Zihua Wang
- CAS Key Laboratory for Biomedical Effects of Nanomaterials & Nanosafety, National Center for Nanoscience and Technology, Beijing 100190, China; CAS Center for Excellence in Nanoscience, National Center for Nanoscience and Technology, Beijing 100190, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Zhiyuan Hu
- CAS Key Laboratory for Biomedical Effects of Nanomaterials & Nanosafety, National Center for Nanoscience and Technology, Beijing 100190, China; CAS Center for Excellence in Nanoscience, National Center for Nanoscience and Technology, Beijing 100190, China.
| | - Jiesheng Tian
- State Key Laboratories for Agro-biotechnology and College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Lingling Geng
- CAS Key Laboratory for Biomedical Effects of Nanomaterials & Nanosafety, National Center for Nanoscience and Technology, Beijing 100190, China; National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China.
| | - Qiaojun Fang
- CAS Key Laboratory for Biomedical Effects of Nanomaterials & Nanosafety, National Center for Nanoscience and Technology, Beijing 100190, China; CAS Center for Excellence in Nanoscience, National Center for Nanoscience and Technology, Beijing 100190, China.
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16
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Cheng L, Ke Y, Yu S, Jing J. Co-delivery of doxorubicin and recombinant plasmid pHSP70-Plk1-shRNA by bacterial magnetosomes for osteosarcoma therapy. Int J Nanomedicine 2016; 11:5277-5286. [PMID: 27822032 PMCID: PMC5087786 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s115364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
To explore a novel combination of chemotherapy, gene therapy, and thermotherapy for osteosarcoma, a targeted heat-sensitive co-delivery system based on bacterial magnetosomes (BMs) was developed. The optimal culture conditions of magnetotactic bacteria (MTB) AMB-1 and characterization of BMs were achieved. A recombinant eukaryotic plasmid heat shock protein 70-polo-like kinase 1-short hairpin RNA (pHSP70-Plk1-shRNA) under transcriptional control of a thermosensitive promoter (human HSP70 promoter) was constructed for gene therapy. Doxorubicin (DOX) and pHSP70-Plk1-shRNA were included in the targeted thermosensitive co-delivery system, and in vitro DOX release activity, targeted gene silencing efficiency and in vitro antitumor efficacy were investigated. The results showed that the optimal culture conditions of MTB AMB-1 are an oxygen concentration of 4.0%, a pH value of 7.0, 20 μmol/L of ferrous sulfate, 800 mg/L of sodium nitrate, and 200 mg/L of succinic acid. The temperature of BMs reached 43°C within 3 minutes and could be maintained for 30 minutes by adjusting the magnitude of the alternating magnetic field (AMF). The diameters of BMs, BM-DOX, BM-recombinant eukaryotic plasmid pHSP70-Plk1-shRNA (shPlk1), and BM-DOX-shPlk1 were 43.7±4.6, 79.2±5.4, 88.9±7.8, and 133.5±11.4 nm, respectively. The zeta potentials of BMs, BM-DOX, BM-shPlk1, and BM-DOX-shPlk1 were -29.4±6.9, -9.5±5.6, -16.7±4.8, and -10.3±3.1 mV, respectively. Besides, the system exhibited good release behavior. DOX release rate from BM-DOX-shPlk1 was 54% after incubation with phosphate-buffered saline at 43°C and 37% after incubation with 50% fetal bovine serum, which was significantly higher than that at 37°C (P<0.05). In addition, the expressions of Plk1 mRNA and protein were significantly suppressed in cells treated with BM-DOX-shPlk1 following hyperthermia treatment under the influence of an AMF compared to other groups (P<0.05). Furthermore, evaluation of the effect of in vitro antitumor revealed that BM-DOX-shPlk1 following hyperthermia treatment under the influence of an AMF was significantly more effective than others in tumor inhibition. In conclusion, the new heat-sensitive co-delivery system represents a promising approach for the treatment of cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Cheng
- Department of Orthopaedics, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, People’s Republic of China
| | - Youqun Ke
- Department of Orthopaedics, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, People’s Republic of China
| | - Shuisheng Yu
- Department of Orthopaedics, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, People’s Republic of China
| | - Juehua Jing
- Department of Orthopaedics, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, People’s Republic of China
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17
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Faivre D, Godec TU. From bacteria to mollusks: the principles underlying the biomineralization of iron oxide materials. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2016; 54:4728-47. [PMID: 25851816 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201408900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2014] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Various organisms possess a genetic program that enables the controlled formation of a mineral, a process termed biomineralization. The variety of biological material architectures is mind-boggling and arises from the ability of organisms to exert control over crystal nucleation and growth. The structure and composition of biominerals equip biomineralizing organisms with properties and functionalities that abiotically formed materials, made of the same mineral, usually lack. Therefore, elucidating the mechanisms underlying biomineralization and morphogenesis is of interdisciplinary interest to extract design principles that will enable the biomimetic formation of functional materials with similar capabilities. Herein, we summarize what is known about iron oxides formed by bacteria and mollusks for their magnetic and mechanical properties. We describe the chemical and biological machineries that are involved in controlling mineral precipitation and organization and show how these organisms are able to form highly complex structures under physiological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damien Faivre
- Max-Planck-Institut für Kolloid- und Grenzflächenforschung, Wissenschaftspark Golm, 14424 Potsdam (Germany) http://www.mpikg.mpg.de/135282/MBMB.
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18
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Huang S, Pessot G, Cremer P, Weeber R, Holm C, Nowak J, Odenbach S, Menzel AM, Auernhammer GK. Buckling of paramagnetic chains in soft gels. SOFT MATTER 2016; 12:228-37. [PMID: 26463270 DOI: 10.1039/c5sm01814e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
We study the magneto-elastic coupling behavior of paramagnetic chains in soft polymer gels exposed to external magnetic fields. To this end, a laser scanning confocal microscope is used to observe the morphology of the paramagnetic chains together with the deformation field of the surrounding gel network. The paramagnetic chains in soft polymer gels show rich morphological shape changes under oblique magnetic fields, in particular a pronounced buckling deformation. The details of the resulting morphological shapes depend on the length of the chain, the strength of the external magnetic field, and the modulus of the gel. Based on the observation that the magnetic chains are strongly coupled to the surrounding polymer network, a simplified model is developed to describe their buckling behavior. A coarse-grained molecular dynamics simulation model featuring an increased matrix stiffness on the surfaces of the particles leads to morphologies in agreement with the experimentally observed buckling effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shilin Huang
- Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research, Ackermannweg 10, 55128 Mainz, Germany.
| | - Giorgio Pessot
- Institut für Theoretische Physik II: Weiche Materie, Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Peet Cremer
- Institut für Theoretische Physik II: Weiche Materie, Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Rudolf Weeber
- Institute for Computational Physics, Universität Stuttgart, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Christian Holm
- Institute for Computational Physics, Universität Stuttgart, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Johannes Nowak
- Chair of Magnetofluiddynamics, Measuring and Automation Technology, Institute of Fluid Mechanics, Technische Universität Dresden, 01069 Dresden, Germany
| | - Stefan Odenbach
- Chair of Magnetofluiddynamics, Measuring and Automation Technology, Institute of Fluid Mechanics, Technische Universität Dresden, 01069 Dresden, Germany
| | - Andreas M Menzel
- Institut für Theoretische Physik II: Weiche Materie, Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Günter K Auernhammer
- Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research, Ackermannweg 10, 55128 Mainz, Germany.
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Barber-Zucker S, Keren-Khadmy N, Zarivach R. From invagination to navigation: The story of magnetosome-associated proteins in magnetotactic bacteria. Protein Sci 2015; 25:338-51. [PMID: 26457474 DOI: 10.1002/pro.2827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2015] [Accepted: 10/07/2015] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Magnetotactic bacteria (MTB) are a group of Gram-negative microorganisms that are able to sense and change their orientation in accordance with the geomagnetic field. This unique capability is due to the presence of a special suborganelle called the magnetosome, composed of either a magnetite or gregite crystal surrounded by a lipid membrane. MTB were first detected in 1975 and since then numerous efforts have been made to clarify the special mechanism of magnetosome formation at the molecular level. Magnetosome formation can be divided into several steps, beginning with vesicle invagination from the cell membrane, through protein sorting, followed by the combined steps of iron transportation, biomineralization, and the alignment of magnetosomes into a chain. The magnetosome-chain enables the sensing of the magnetic field, and thus, allows the MTB to navigate. It is known that magnetosome formation is tightly controlled by a distinctive set of magnetosome-associated proteins that are encoded mainly in a genomically conserved region within MTB called the magnetosome island (MAI). Most of these proteins were shown to have an impact on the magnetism of MTB. Here, we describe the process in which the magnetosome is formed with an emphasis on the different proteins that participate in each stage of the magnetosome formation scheme.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiran Barber-Zucker
- Department of Life Sciences and the National Institute for Biotechnology in the Negev, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, 8410501, Israel
| | - Noa Keren-Khadmy
- Department of Life Sciences and the National Institute for Biotechnology in the Negev, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, 8410501, Israel
| | - Raz Zarivach
- Department of Life Sciences and the National Institute for Biotechnology in the Negev, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, 8410501, Israel
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20
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Goychuk I. Modeling magnetosensitive ion channels in the viscoelastic environment of living cells. PHYSICAL REVIEW. E, STATISTICAL, NONLINEAR, AND SOFT MATTER PHYSICS 2015; 92:042711. [PMID: 26565276 DOI: 10.1103/physreve.92.042711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2015] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
We propose and study a model of hypothetical magnetosensitive ionic channels which are long thought to be a possible candidate to explain the influence of weak magnetic fields on living organisms ranging from magnetotactic bacteria to fishes, birds, rats, bats, and other mammals including humans. The core of the model is provided by a short chain of magnetosomes serving as a sensor, which is coupled by elastic linkers to the gating elements of ion channels forming a small cluster in the cell membrane. The magnetic sensor is fixed by one end on cytoskeleton elements attached to the membrane and is exposed to viscoelastic cytosol. Its free end can reorient stochastically and subdiffusively in viscoelastic cytosol responding to external magnetic field changes and can open the gates of coupled ion channels. The sensor dynamics is generally bistable due to bistability of the gates which can be in two states with probabilities which depend on the sensor orientation. For realistic parameters, it is shown that this model channel can operate in the magnetic field of Earth for a small number (five to seven) of single-domain magnetosomes constituting the sensor rod, each of which has a typical size found in magnetotactic bacteria and other organisms or even just one sufficiently large nanoparticle of a characteristic size also found in nature. It is shown that, due to the viscoelasticity of the medium, the bistable gating dynamics generally exhibits power law and stretched exponential distributions of the residence times of the channels in their open and closed states. This provides a generic physical mechanism for the explanation of the origin of such anomalous kinetics for other ionic channels whose sensors move in a viscoelastic environment provided by either cytosol or biological membrane, in a quite general context, beyond the fascinating hypothesis of magnetosensitive ionic channels we explore.
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Affiliation(s)
- Igor Goychuk
- Institute for Physics and Astronomy, University of Potsdam, Karl-Liebknecht-Strasse 24/25, 14476 Potsdam-Golm, Germany
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21
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Faivre D, Godec TU. Bakterien und Weichtiere: Prinzipien der Biomineralisation von Eisenoxid-Materialien. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201408900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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22
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Bennet M, Bertinetti L, Neely RK, Schertel A, Körnig A, Flors C, Müller FD, Schüler D, Klumpp S, Faivre D. Biologically controlled synthesis and assembly of magnetite nanoparticles. Faraday Discuss 2015; 181:71-83. [PMID: 25932467 PMCID: PMC4672721 DOI: 10.1039/c4fd00240g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2014] [Accepted: 12/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Magnetite nanoparticles have size- and shape-dependent magnetic properties. In addition, assemblies of magnetite nanoparticles forming one-dimensional nanostructures have magnetic properties distinct from zero-dimensional or non-organized materials due to strong uniaxial shape anisotropy. However, assemblies of free-standing magnetic nanoparticles tend to collapse and form closed-ring structures rather than chains in order to minimize their energy. Magnetotactic bacteria, ubiquitous microorganisms, have the capability to mineralize magnetite nanoparticles, the so-called magnetosomes, and to direct their assembly in stable chains via biological macromolecules. In this contribution, the synthesis and assembly of biological magnetite to obtain functional magnetic dipoles in magnetotactic bacteria are presented, with a focus on the assembly. We present tomographic reconstructions based on cryo-FIB sectioning and SEM imaging of a magnetotactic bacterium to exemplify that the magnetosome chain is indeed a paradigm of a 1D magnetic nanostructure, based on the assembly of several individual particles. We show that the biological forces are a major player in the formation of the magnetosome chain. Finally, we demonstrate by super resolution fluorescence microscopy that MamK, a protein of the actin family necessary to form the chain backbone in the bacteria, forms a bundle of filaments that are not only found in the vicinity of the magnetosome chain but are widespread within the cytoplasm, illustrating the dynamic localization of the protein within the cells. These very simple microorganisms have thus much to teach us with regards to controlling the design of functional 1D magnetic nanoassembly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathieu Bennet
- Department of Biomaterials , Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces , Science Park Golm , 14424 Potsdam , Germany .
| | - Luca Bertinetti
- Department of Biomaterials , Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces , Science Park Golm , 14424 Potsdam , Germany .
| | - Robert K. Neely
- The University of Birmingham , School of Chemistry , Edgbaston , Birmingham , B15 2TT , UK
| | - Andreas Schertel
- Carl Zeiss Microscopy GmbH , Training , Application and Support Center , Carl-Zeiss-Str. 22 , 73447 Oberkochen , Germany
| | - André Körnig
- Department of Biomaterials , Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces , Science Park Golm , 14424 Potsdam , Germany .
| | - Cristina Flors
- Madrid Institute for Advanced Studies in Nanoscience (IMDEA Nanociencia) , C/Faraday 9 , Madrid 28049 , Spain
| | - Frank D. Müller
- Universität Bayreuth , Lehrstuhl für Mikrobiologie , Universitätssstraße 30 , 95447 Bayreuth , Germany
| | - Dirk Schüler
- Universität Bayreuth , Lehrstuhl für Mikrobiologie , Universitätssstraße 30 , 95447 Bayreuth , Germany
| | - Stefan Klumpp
- Department of Theory and Biosystems , Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces , Science Park Golm , 14424 Potsdam , Germany
| | - Damien Faivre
- Department of Biomaterials , Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces , Science Park Golm , 14424 Potsdam , Germany .
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