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Bell TN, Kusi-Appiah AE, Tocci V, Lyu P, Zhu L, Zhu F, Van Winkle D, Cao H, Singh MS, Lenhert S. Scalable lipid droplet microarray fabrication, validation, and screening. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0304736. [PMID: 38968248 PMCID: PMC11226032 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0304736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2024] [Accepted: 05/16/2024] [Indexed: 07/07/2024] Open
Abstract
High throughput screening of small molecules and natural products is costly, requiring significant amounts of time, reagents, and operating space. Although microarrays have proven effective in the miniaturization of screening for certain biochemical assays, such as nucleic acid hybridization or antibody binding, they are not widely used for drug discovery in cell culture due to the need for cells to internalize lipophilic drug candidates. Lipid droplet microarrays are a promising solution to this problem as they are capable of delivering lipophilic drugs to cells at dosages comparable to solution delivery. However, the scalablility of the array fabrication, assay validation, and screening steps has limited the utility of this approach. Here we take several new steps to scale up the process for lipid droplet array fabrication, assay validation in cell culture, and drug screening. A nanointaglio printing process has been adapted for use with a printing press. The arrays are stabilized for immersion into aqueous solution using a vapor coating process. In addition to delivery of lipophilic compounds, we found that we are also able to encapsulate and deliver a water-soluble compound in this way. The arrays can be functionalized by extracellular matrix proteins such as collagen prior to cell culture as the mechanism for uptake is based on direct contact with the lipid delivery vehicles rather than diffusion of the drug out of the microarray spots. We demonstrate this method for delivery to 3 different cell types and the screening of 92 natural product extracts on a microarray covering an area of less than 0.1 cm2. The arrays are suitable for miniaturized screening, for instance in high biosafety level facilities where space is limited and for applications where cell numbers are limited, such as in functional precision medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tracey N. Bell
- Department of Biological Science and Integrative NanoScience Institute, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida, United States of America
| | - Aubrey E. Kusi-Appiah
- Department of Biological Science and Integrative NanoScience Institute, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida, United States of America
| | - Vincent Tocci
- Department of Biological Science and Integrative NanoScience Institute, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida, United States of America
| | - Pengfei Lyu
- Department of Statistics, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida, United States of America
| | - Lei Zhu
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida, United States of America
| | - Fanxiu Zhu
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida, United States of America
| | - David Van Winkle
- Department of Physics, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida, United States of America
| | - Hongyuan Cao
- Department of Statistics, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida, United States of America
| | - Mandip S. Singh
- College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Science, Florida A&M University, Tallahassee, Florida, United States of America
| | - Steven Lenhert
- Department of Biological Science and Integrative NanoScience Institute, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida, United States of America
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2
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Porras-Gomez M, Leal C. Lipid-based Liquid Crystalline Films and Solutions for the Delivery of Cargo to Cells. LIQUID CRYSTALS REVIEWS 2019; 7:167-182. [PMID: 31942262 PMCID: PMC6961842 DOI: 10.1080/21680396.2019.1666752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2019] [Accepted: 08/09/2019] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
A major challenge in the delivery of cargo (genes and/or drugs) to cells using nanostructured vehicles is the ability to safely penetrate plasma membranes by escaping the endosome before degradation, later releasing the payload into the cytoplasm or organelle of interest. Lipids are a class of bio-compatible molecules that self-assemble into a variety of liquid crystalline constructs. Most of these materials can be used to encapsulate drugs, proteins, and nucleic acids to deliver them safely into various cell types. Lipid phases offer a plethora of structures capable of forming complexes with biomolecules, most notably nucleic acids. The physichochemical characteristics of the lipid molecular building blocks, one might say the lipid primary structure, dictates how they collectively interact to assemble into various secondary structures. These include bilayers, lamellar stacks of bilayers, two-dimensional (2D) hexagonal arrays of lipid tubes, and even 3D cubic constructs. The liquid crystalline materials can be present in the form of aqueous suspensions, bulk materials or confined to a film configuration depending on the intended application (e.g. bolus vs surface-based delivery). This work compiles recent findings of different lipid-based liquid crystalline constructs both in films and particles for gene and drug delivery applications. We explore how lipid primary and secondary structures endow liquid crystalline materials with the ability to carry biomolecular cargo and interact with cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marilyn Porras-Gomez
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign. Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Cecilia Leal
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign. Urbana, IL 61801, USA
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3
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Lee CC, Lin CS, Tung SH. Tunable Phospholipid Nanopatterns Mediated by Cholesterol with Sub-3 nm Domain Size. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2019; 35:3383-3390. [PMID: 30735047 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.8b03075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The interactions between phospholipids and cholesterol have been extensively studied in the aqueous systems because of their vital functionalities in the cell membrane. In this study, instead of the self-assembly in water, we explored the microphase-separated structures of phospholipids in bulk and thin films in the absence of solvents and created a series of ordered nanostructures by incorporation of cholesterol into phospholipids. Three zwitterionic two-tailed phospholipids, that is, phosphatidylcholines (PCs), with different numbers of double bonds on the hydrocarbon tails were investigated, including egg PC, 1,2-dioleoyl- sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DOPC), and 1,2-dipalmitoyl- sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DPPC). We find that the nanostructures are highly dependent on the conformation of the tails on the PCs, which can be tailored by the number of double bonds on tails and the molar ratio of cholesterol to PC. By changing the molar ratio, egg PC with one double bond organizes into rich microdomains, including lamellae, spheres, and cylinders, whereas DOPC with two double bonds form spheres and cylinders and DPPC with no double bond forms lamellae only. The sizes of the microdomains are less than 3 nm, smaller than those of typical block copolymers. The biomolecule-based nanopatterns developed in this work provide a platform toward future applications of nanotechnology and biotechnology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chia-Chun Lee
- Institute of Polymer Science and Engineering and Advanced Research Center for Green Materials Science and Technology , National Taiwan University , Taipei 10617 , Taiwan
| | - Chen-Shin Lin
- Institute of Polymer Science and Engineering and Advanced Research Center for Green Materials Science and Technology , National Taiwan University , Taipei 10617 , Taiwan
| | - Shih-Huang Tung
- Institute of Polymer Science and Engineering and Advanced Research Center for Green Materials Science and Technology , National Taiwan University , Taipei 10617 , Taiwan
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4
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Lee TH, Hirst DJ, Kulkarni K, Del Borgo MP, Aguilar MI. Exploring Molecular-Biomembrane Interactions with Surface Plasmon Resonance and Dual Polarization Interferometry Technology: Expanding the Spotlight onto Biomembrane Structure. Chem Rev 2018; 118:5392-5487. [PMID: 29793341 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.7b00729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The molecular analysis of biomolecular-membrane interactions is central to understanding most cellular systems but has emerged as a complex technical challenge given the complexities of membrane structure and composition across all living cells. We present a review of the application of surface plasmon resonance and dual polarization interferometry-based biosensors to the study of biomembrane-based systems using both planar mono- or bilayers or liposomes. We first describe the optical principals and instrumentation of surface plasmon resonance, including both linear and extraordinary transmission modes and dual polarization interferometry. We then describe the wide range of model membrane systems that have been developed for deposition on the chips surfaces that include planar, polymer cushioned, tethered bilayers, and liposomes. This is followed by a description of the different chemical immobilization or physisorption techniques. The application of this broad range of engineered membrane surfaces to biomolecular-membrane interactions is then overviewed and how the information obtained using these techniques enhance our molecular understanding of membrane-mediated peptide and protein function. We first discuss experiments where SPR alone has been used to characterize membrane binding and describe how these studies yielded novel insight into the molecular events associated with membrane interactions and how they provided a significant impetus to more recent studies that focus on coincident membrane structure changes during binding of peptides and proteins. We then discuss the emerging limitations of not monitoring the effects on membrane structure and how SPR data can be combined with DPI to provide significant new information on how a membrane responds to the binding of peptides and proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tzong-Hsien Lee
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Biomedicine Discovery Institute , Monash University , Clayton , VIC 3800 , Australia
| | - Daniel J Hirst
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Biomedicine Discovery Institute , Monash University , Clayton , VIC 3800 , Australia
| | - Ketav Kulkarni
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Biomedicine Discovery Institute , Monash University , Clayton , VIC 3800 , Australia
| | - Mark P Del Borgo
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Biomedicine Discovery Institute , Monash University , Clayton , VIC 3800 , Australia
| | - Marie-Isabel Aguilar
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Biomedicine Discovery Institute , Monash University , Clayton , VIC 3800 , Australia
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5
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Kang M, Tuteja M, Centrone A, Topgaard D, Leal C. Nanostructured Lipid-based Films for Substrate Mediated Applications in Biotechnology. ADVANCED FUNCTIONAL MATERIALS 2018; 28:10.1002/adfm.201704356. [PMID: 31080383 PMCID: PMC6508631 DOI: 10.1002/adfm.201704356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Amphiphilic in nature, lipids spontaneously self-assemble into a range of nanostructures in the presence of water. Among lipid self-assembled structures, liposomes and supported lipid bilayers have long held scientific interest for their main applications in drug delivery and plasma membrane models, respectively. In contrast, lipid-based multi-layered membranes on solid supports only recently begun drawing scientists' attention. New studies on lipid films show that the stacking of multiple bilayers on a solid support yields interestingly complex features to these systems. Namely, multiple layers exhibit cooperative structural and dynamic behavior. In addition, the materials enable compartmentalization, templating, and enhanced release of several molecules of interest. Importantly, supported lipid phases exhibit long-range periodic nano-scale order and orientation that is tunable in response to a changing environment. Herein, we summarize current and pertinent understanding of lipid-based film research focusing on how unique structural characteristics enable the emergence of new applications in biotechnology including label-free biosensors, macroscale drug delivery, and substrate-mediated gene delivery. Our very recent contributions to lipid-based films, focusing on the structural characterization at the meso, nano, and molecular-scale, using Small-Angle X-ray Scattering, Atomic Force Microscopy, Photothermal Induced Resonance, and Solid-State NMR will be also highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minjee Kang
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Mohit Tuteja
- Center for Nanoscale Science and Technology, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899, United States
- Maryland Nanocenter, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, United States
| | - Andrea Centrone
- Center for Nanoscale Science and Technology, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899, United States
| | - Daniel Topgaard
- Division of Physical Chemistry, Center of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Cecilia Leal
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
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6
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Steer D, Kang M, Leal C. Soft nanostructured films for directing the assembly of functional materials. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2017; 28:142001. [PMID: 28145900 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/aa5d77] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Lipids are a class of biological small molecules with hydrophilic and hydrophobic constituents forming the structural membranes in cells. Over the past century an extensive understanding of lipid biology and biophysics has been developed illuminating lipids as an intricate, highly tunable, and hierarchical soft-matter system. In addition to serving as cell membrane models, lipids have been investigated as microphase separated structures in aqueous solutions. In terms of applications lipids have been realized as powerful structural motifs for the encapsulation and cellular delivery of genetic material. More recently, lipids have also revealed promise as thin film materials, exhibiting long-range periodic nano-scale order and tunable orientation. In this review we summarize the pertinent understanding of lipid nanostructure development in bulk aqueous systems followed by the current and potential perturbations to these results induced by introduction of a substrate. These effects are punctuated by a summary of our published results in the field of lipid thin films with added nucleic acids and key results introducing hard materials into lipid nanostructured substrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Steer
- Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign, United States of America
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7
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Sironi B, Snow T, Redeker C, Slastanova A, Bikondoa O, Arnold T, Klein J, Briscoe WH. Structure of lipid multilayers via drop casting of aqueous liposome dispersions. SOFT MATTER 2016; 12:3877-3887. [PMID: 27009376 DOI: 10.1039/c6sm00369a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the structure of solid supported lipid multilayers is crucial to their application as a platform for novel materials. Conventionally, they are prepared from drop casting or spin coating of lipids dissolved in organic solvents, and lipid multilayers prepared from aqueous media and their structural characterisation have not been reported previously, due to their extremely low lipid solubility (i.e.∼10(-9) M) in water. Herein, using X-ray reflectivity (XRR) facilitated by a "bending mica" method, we have studied the structural characteristics of dioleoylphosphatidylcholine (DOPC) multilayers prepared via drop casting aqueous small unilamellar and multilamellar vesicle or liposome (i.e. SUV and MLV) dispersions on different surfaces, including mica, positively charged polyethylenimine (PEI) coated mica, and stearic trimethylammonium iodide (STAI) coated mica which exposes a monolayer of hydrocarbon tails. We suggest that DOPC liposomes served both as a delivery matrix where an appreciable lipid concentration in water (∼25 mg mL(-1) or 14 mM) was feasible, and as a structural precursor where the lamellar structure was readily retained on the rupture of the vesicles at the solid surface upon solvent evaporation to facilitate rapid multilayer formation. We find that multilayers on mica from MLVs exhibited polymorphism, whereas the SUV multilayers were well ordered and showed stronger stability against water. The influence of substrate chemistry (i.e. polymer coating, charge and hydrophobicity) on the multilayer structure is discussed in terms of lipid-substrate molecular interactions determining the bilayer packing proximal to the solid-liquid interface, which then had a templating effect on the structure of the bilayers distal from the interface, resulting in the overall different multilayer structural characteristics on different substrates. Such a fundamental understanding of the correlation between the physical parameters that characterise liposomes and substrate chemistry, and the structure of lipid multilayers underpins the potential development of a simple method via an aqueous liposome dispersion route for the inclusion of hydrophilic functional additives (e.g. drugs or nanoparticles) into lipid multilayer based hybrid materials, where tailored structural characteristics are an important consideration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatrice Sironi
- School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock's Close, Bristol BS8 1TS, UK.
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8
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Heath GR, Li M, Polignano IL, Richens JL, Catucci G, O’Shea P, Sadeghi SJ, Gilardi G, Butt JN, Jeuken LJC. Layer-by-Layer Assembly of Supported Lipid Bilayer Poly-l-Lysine Multilayers. Biomacromolecules 2015; 17:324-35. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.5b01434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- George R. Heath
- School
of Biomedical Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom
| | - Mengqiu Li
- School
of Biomedical Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom
| | | | - Joanna L. Richens
- Cell
Biophysics Group, Institute of Biophysics, Imaging and Optical Science,
School of Life Sciences, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, United Kingdom
| | - Gianluca Catucci
- Life
Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Torino, 10123, Turin, Italy
| | - Paul O’Shea
- Cell
Biophysics Group, Institute of Biophysics, Imaging and Optical Science,
School of Life Sciences, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, United Kingdom
| | - Sheila J. Sadeghi
- Life
Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Torino, 10123, Turin, Italy
| | - Gianfranco Gilardi
- Life
Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Torino, 10123, Turin, Italy
| | - Julea N. Butt
- Centre
for Molecular and Structural Biochemistry, School of Biological Sciences,
and School of Chemistry, University of East Anglia, Norwich NR4 7TJ, United Kingdom
| | - Lars J. C. Jeuken
- School
of Biomedical Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom
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9
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Artificial biomembrane based on DPPC — Investigation into phase transition and thermal behavior through ellipsometric techniques. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2015; 1848:2295-307. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2015.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2015] [Revised: 07/01/2015] [Accepted: 07/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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10
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Zhu Y, Negmi A, Moran-Mirabal J. Multi-Stacked Supported Lipid Bilayer Micropatterning through Polymer Stencil Lift-Off. MEMBRANES 2015; 5:385-98. [PMID: 26343733 PMCID: PMC4584287 DOI: 10.3390/membranes5030385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2015] [Accepted: 08/25/2015] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Complex multi-lamellar structures play a critical role in biological systems, where they are present as lamellar bodies, and as part of biological assemblies that control energy transduction processes. Multi-lamellar lipid layers not only provide interesting systems for fundamental research on membrane structure and bilayer-associated polypeptides, but can also serve as components in bioinspired materials or devices. Although the ability to pattern stacked lipid bilayers at the micron scale is of importance for these purposes, limited work has been done in developing such patterning techniques. Here, we present a simple and direct approach to pattern stacked supported lipid bilayers (SLBs) using polymer stencil lift-off and the electrostatic interactions between cationic and anionic lipids. Both homogeneous and phase-segregated stacked SLB patterns were produced, demonstrating that the stacked lipid bilayers retain lateral diffusivity. We demonstrate patterned SLB stacks of up to four bilayers, where fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) and quenching was used to probe the interactions between lipid bilayers. Furthermore, the study of lipid phase behaviour showed that gel phase domains align between adjacent layers. The proposed stacked SLB pattern platform provides a robust model for studying lipid behaviour with a controlled number of bilayers, and an attractive means towards building functional bioinspired materials or devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yujie Zhu
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster Univerisity, 1280 Main Street West,Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4M8, Canada
| | - Ahmed Negmi
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster Univerisity, 1280 Main Street West,Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4M8, Canada
| | - Jose Moran-Mirabal
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster Univerisity, 1280 Main Street West,Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4M8, Canada.
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11
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Chu X, Xing P, Li S, Ma M, Hao J, Hao A. Dual-tuning multidimensional superstructures based on a T-shaped molecule: vesicle, helix, membrane and nanofiber-constructed gel. RSC Adv 2015. [DOI: 10.1039/c4ra12185f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Dual-tuning self-assembly of Fmoc–Gly (a T-shape molecule) supramolecular self assembly was firstly reported here.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoxiao Chu
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering and Key Laboratory of Colloid and Interface Chemistry of Ministry of Education
- Shandong University
- Jinan 250100
- PR China
| | - Pengyao Xing
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering and Key Laboratory of Colloid and Interface Chemistry of Ministry of Education
- Shandong University
- Jinan 250100
- PR China
| | - Shangyang Li
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering and Key Laboratory of Colloid and Interface Chemistry of Ministry of Education
- Shandong University
- Jinan 250100
- PR China
| | - Mingfang Ma
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering and Key Laboratory of Colloid and Interface Chemistry of Ministry of Education
- Shandong University
- Jinan 250100
- PR China
| | - Jingcheng Hao
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering and Key Laboratory of Colloid and Interface Chemistry of Ministry of Education
- Shandong University
- Jinan 250100
- PR China
| | - Aiyou Hao
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering and Key Laboratory of Colloid and Interface Chemistry of Ministry of Education
- Shandong University
- Jinan 250100
- PR China
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12
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Wilkop TE, Sanborn J, Oliver AE, Hanson JM, Parikh AN. On-Demand Self-Assembly of Supported Membranes Using Sacrificial, Anhydrobiotic Sugar Coats. J Am Chem Soc 2013; 136:60-3. [DOI: 10.1021/ja410866w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas E. Wilkop
- Department
of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Davis, California, 95616 United States
| | - Jeremy Sanborn
- Applied
Science Graduate Group, University of California, Davis, California, 95616 United States
| | - Ann E. Oliver
- Department
of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Davis, California, 95616 United States
| | - Joshua M. Hanson
- Biophysics
Graduate Group, University of California, Davis, California, 95616 United States
| | - Atul N. Parikh
- Department
of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Davis, California, 95616 United States
- Applied
Science Graduate Group, University of California, Davis, California, 95616 United States
- Biophysics
Graduate Group, University of California, Davis, California, 95616 United States
- Department of Chemical Engineering & Materials Science, University of California, Davis, California, 95616 United States
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