Visible Light Mediated Activation and O-Glycosylation of Thioglycosides

Organometallic Photocatalyst-Promoted Synthesis and Modification of Carbohydrates under Photoirradiation

Carbohydrates are natural, renewable, chemical compounds that play crucial roles in biological systems. Thus, efficient and stereoselective glycosylation is an urgent task for the preparation of pure and structurally well-defined carbohydrates. Photoredox catalysis has emerged as a powerful tool in carbohydrate chemistry, providing an alternative for addressing some of the challenges of glycochemistry. Over the last few decades, Ir- and Ru-based organometallic photocatalysts have attracted significant interest because of their high stability, high-energy triplet state, strong visible-light absorption, long luminescence lifetime, and amenability to ligand modification. This review highlights the recent progress in the organometallic photocatalyst-promoted synthesis and modification of carbohydrates under photoirradiation, as well as the related benefits and drawbacks.

Catalytic Activation of Thioglycosides with Copper-Carbenes for Stereoselective 1,2-Cis-Furanosylations

Thioglycoside activation, crucial for oligosaccharide synthesis, faces challenges with the need for stoichiometric promoters, additives, and cryogenic conditions, particularly in stereoselective 1,2-cis-linkage formation. This study introduces a carbene-based catalytic method using Cu(OTf)2 for thioglycoside activation, enabling efficient 1,2-cis-furanosylation in ribose and arabinose. The method is orthogonal to conventional thioglycoside and alkyne donors, accommodates sterically demanding acceptors, and achieves stereoselectivity independent of the donor anomeric configuration and C2-protecting groups, with copper chelation playing a key role.

Ferric Chloride Promoted Glycosidation of Alkyl Thioglycosides

Reported herein is a new reaction for glycosylation with thioglycosides in the presence of iron(III) chloride. Previously, FeCl3 was used for the activation of thioglycosides as a Lewis acid co-promoter paired with NIS. In the reported process, although 5.0 equiv of FeCl3 are needed to activate thioglycosides most efficiently, no additives were used, and the reactions with reactive glycosyl donors smoothly proceeded to completion in 1 h at 0 °C. This work showcases a new direction in developing glycosylation methods using greener and earth-abundant activators.

Transformations of carbohydrate derivatives enabled by photocatalysis and visible light photochemistry

This review article highlights the diverse ways in which recent developments in the areas of photocatalysis and visible light photochemistry are impacting synthetic carbohydrate chemistry. The major topics covered are photocatalytic glycosylations, generation of radicals at the anomeric position, transformations involving radical formation at non-anomeric positions, additions to glycals, processes initiated by photocatalytic hydrogen atom transfer from sugars, and functional group interconversions at OH and SH groups. Factors influencing stereo- and site-selectivity in these processes, along with mechanistic aspects, are discussed.

"Boomerang" Strategy in Carbohydrate Chemistry: Diastereoselective Synthesis of C-Glycosylated Benzothiazoles from ortho-Isocyanophenyl Thioglycosides

This paper reveals a novel "boomerang" strategy in the expedient and diastereoselective synthesis of C-nucleoside analogues. Bench-stable ortho-isocyanophenyl thioglycosides can be converted to glycosyl radicals through rapid and efficient C-S bond homolysis when they are irradiated by visible light. The glycosyl radicals are subsequently trapped by the corresponding leaving group or other radical acceptors to provide diverse C-nucleoside analogues under mild conditions.

Photosensitizer-free visible-light-promoted glycosylation enabled by 2-glycosyloxy tropone donors

Photochemical glycosylation has attracted considerable attention in carbohydrate chemistry. However, to the best of our knowledge, visible-light-promoted glycosylation via photoactive glycosyl donor has not been reported. In the study, we report a photosensitizer-free visible-light-mediated glycosylation approach using a photoactive 2-glycosyloxy tropone as the donor. This glycosylation reaction proceeds at ambient temperature to give a wide range of O-glycosides or oligosaccharides with yields up to 99%. This method is further applied in the stereoselective preparation of various functional glycosyl phosphates/phosphosaccharides, the construction of N-glycosides/nucleosides, and the late-stage glycosylation of natural products or pharmaceuticals on gram scales, and the iterative synthesis of hexasaccharide. The protocol features uncomplicated conditions, operational simplicity, wide substrate scope (58 examples), excellent compatibility with functional groups, scalability of products (7 examples), and high yields. It provides an efficient glycosylation method for accessing O/N-glycosides and glycans.

Benzyne-Promoted, 1,2-cis-Selective O-Glycosylation with Benzylchalcogenoglycoside Donors

Here, we show that the reaction of benzylchalcogenoglycosides with benzyne in the presence of alcohols results in highly 1,2-cis-selective O-glycosylation in a solvent-dependent manner. Thioglycosides, selenoglycosides, and alcohols with a range of nucleophilicities lead to a productive reaction, and unusual protecting groups, auxiliary groups, and additives are avoided.

Cooperatively Catalyzed Activation of Thioglycosides That Bypasses Intermediacy of Glycosyl Halides

Reported herein is the development of a novel method for activating thioglycosides without a glycosyl halide intermediate. This has been achieved through the use of a silver salt coupled with an acid additive and molecular iodine. The enhanced stereocontrol was achieved via the H-bond mediated aglycone delivery (HAD) method, and the extended trisaccharide synthesis was achieved via iteration of deprotection and glycosylation steps.

Photocatalytic Transformation of Biomass and Biomass Derived Compounds-Application to Organic Synthesis

Biomass and biomass-derived compounds have become an important alternative feedstock for chemical industry. They may replace fossil feedstocks such as mineral oil and related platform chemicals. These compounds may also be transformed conveniently into new innovative products for the medicinal or the agrochemical domain. The production of cosmetics or surfactants as well as materials for different applications are examples for other domains where new platform chemicals obtained from biomass can be used. Photochemical and especially photocatalytic reactions have recently been recognized as being important tools of organic chemistry as they make compounds or compound families available that cannot be or are difficultly synthesized with conventional methods of organic synthesis. The present review gives a short overview with selected examples on photocatalytic reactions of biopolymers, carbohydrates, fatty acids and some biomass-derived platform chemicals such as furans or levoglucosenone. In this article, the focus is on application to organic synthesis.

3,5-Di(trifluoromethyl)phenyl(cyano)iodonium triflate as a novel and potential activator for p-tolyl thioglycoside donors

3,5-Di(trifluoromethyl)phenyl(cyano)iodonium triflate is described as an accessible, stable, and powerful thiophile that can activate batches of p-tolyl thioglycoside donors at room temperature. Various alcoholic acceptors were efficiently glycosylated, providing the desired glycosides. The novel activation protocol features mild conditions as well as high compatibility with some classic strategies for the stereoselective construction of some biologically relevant glycosidic linkages, as exemplified by α-idosides, α-galactoamines, β-mannosides, and β-rhamnosides.

A Photoredox/Sulfide Dual Catalysis System That Uses Sulfide Radical Cations to Promote Alkene Chlorotrifluoromethylation

Sulfides and their derivatives are among the most important class of reagent in synthetic chemistry. Despite the importance of such compounds, the use of sulfide radical cations in synthetic chemistry is underdeveloped. To address this issue, herein, we describe alkene chlorotrifluoromethylation reactions promoted by photoredox/sulfide dual catalysis systems, which involves sulfide radical cations generated through the oxidation of sulfides by a photoredox catalyst. The high functional group tolerance of this chemistry was demonstrated using natural products and drug molecules as substrate alkenes.

An experimental and theoretical study on stereocontrolled glycosylations by a “one-pot” procedure

Herein we describe a “one-pot” strategy to install the stereoselectivity of both α- and β-glycosides by changing reaction conditions.

Transition-Metal-Mediated Glycosylation with Thioglycosides

Thioglycosides are among the most common glycosyl donors that find broad application in the synthesis of glycans and glycoconjugates. However, the requirement for toxic and/or large access of activators needed for common glycosylations with thioglycosides remains a notable drawback. Due to the increased awareness of the chemical waste impact on the environment, synthetic studies have been driven by the goal of finding non-toxic reagents. The main focus of this review is to highlight recent methods for thioglycoside activation that rely on transition metal catalysis.

Visible-light-induced photoacid catalysis: application in glycosylation with O-glycosyl trichloroacetimidates

The development of visible-light-induced photoacid catalyzed glycosylation is reported. The eosin Y and PhSSPh catalyst system is applied to realize glycosylation with different glycosyl donors upon light irradiation. The reaction shows a broad substrate scope, including both glycosyl donors and acceptors, and highlights the mild nature of the reaction conditions.

Visible-light-promoted 3,5-dimethoxyphenyl glycoside activation and glycosylation

A new glycosylation method promoted by visible light with 3,5-dimethoxyphenyl glycoside as the donor was developed. This protocol delivers both O-glycosides and N-glycosides in moderate to excellent yields using a wide range of O-nucleophiles and nucleobases as the glycosyl acceptors.

Palladium(II)-assisted activation of thioglycosides

Described herein is the first example of glycosidation of thioglycosides in the presence of palladium(ii) bromide. While the activation with PdBr2 alone was proven feasible, higher yields and cleaner reactions were achieved when these glycosylations were performed in the presence of propargyl bromide as an additive. Preliminary mechanistic studies suggest that propargyl bromide assists the reaction by creating an ionizing complex, which accelerates the leaving group departure. A variety of thioglycoside donors in reactions with different glycosyl acceptors were investigated to determine the initial scope of this new reaction. Selective and chemoselective activation of thioglycosides over other leaving groups has also been explored.

Transition metal catalyzed glycosylation reactions - an overview

Carbohydrates are a large class of natural products that play key roles in a number of biological processes such as in cellular communication or disease progression. Carbohydrates are also used as vaccines and pharmaceuticals. Their synthesis through glycosylation reactions is challenging, and often stoichiometric amounts of promoters are required. Transition metal catalyzed glycosylation reactions are far less common, but can have advantages with respect to reaction conditions and selectivity. The review intends to approach the topic from the catalysis and carbohydrate perspective to encourage researchers from both the fields to perform research in the area. The article covers the basics in glycosylation and catalysis chemistry. The catalysts for the reaction can be roughly divided into two groups. In one group, the catalysts serve as Lewis acids. In the other group, the catalysts play a higher sophisticated role, are involved in all elementary steps of the mechanism and remain coordinated to the substrate throughout the whole catalytic cycle. Based on selected examples, the main trends in transition metal catalyzed glycosylation reactions are explained. Lewis acid catalysts tend to require a somewhat higher catalyst load compared to other organometallic catalysts. The reaction conditions such as the temperature and time depend in many cases on the leaving group employed. An outlook is also presented. The article is not meant to be comprehensive; it outlines the most common transition metal catalyzed processes with the intention to bring the catalysis and carbohydrate communities together and to inspire research activities in both areas.

Tritylium assisted iodine catalysis for the synthesis of unsymmetrical triarylmethanes

The combined Lewis acid catalytic system, generated from molecular iodine and tritylium tetrafluoroborate effectively catalyzed the Friedel-Crafts (FC) arylation of diarylmethyl sulfides providing an efficient access to various unsymmetrical triarylmethanes. The addition of tritylium and iodine created a more active catalytic system to promote the cleavage of sulfidic C-S bonds.

Photocontrolled cationic degenerate chain transfer polymerizations via thioacetal initiators

Photocontrolled cationic polymerizations controlled through a degenerate chain transfer process and photocatalyst turnover to recap propagating chains.

s-Tetrazine Dyes: A Facile Generation of Photoredox Organocatalysts for Routine Oxidations

A series of organic dyes derived from s-tetrazine have been synthesized, and their photophysical and electrochemical properties are systematically investigated. Testing these compounds as photoredox catalysts in a model oxidative C-S bond cleavage of thioethers has led us to identify new classes of active s-tetrazines. Moreover, some of them can be formed in situ from commercially available 3,6-dichlorotetrazine, making this photocatalyzed C-S bond functionalization simple and highly practical.

Functional characterization of three flavonoid glycosyltransferases from Andrographis paniculata

Andrographis paniculata is an important traditional medicinal herb in South and Southeast Asian countries with diverse pharmacological activities that contains various flavonoids and flavonoid glycosides. Glycosylation can transform aglycones into more stable, biologically active and structurally diverse glycosides. Here, we report three glycosyltransferases from the leaves of A. paniculata (ApUFGTs) that presented wide substrate spectra for flavonoid glycosylation and exhibited multi-site glycosylation on the substrate molecules. They acted on the 7-OH position of the A ring and were able to glycosylate several other different types of compounds. The biochemical properties and phylogenetic analysis of these glycosyltransferases were also investigated. This study provides a basis for further research on the cloning of genes involved in glycosylation from A. paniculata and offers opportunities for enhancing flavonoid glycoside production in heterologous hosts. These enzymes are expected to become effective tools for drug discovery and for the biosynthesis of derivatives via flavonoid glycosylation.

Recent Developments in Stereoselective Chemical Glycosylation

Because of their pivotal biological functions, attention to sugars and glycobiology has grown rapidly in recent decades, leading to increased demand for homogeneous oligosaccharides. The stereoselective preparation of oligosaccharides by chemical means remains challenging and continues to be a vivid research area for organic chemists. In the past decade, new approaches and reinvestigated traditional methods have transformed the field. These developments include novel catalyses, various types of glycosylation modulators and the use of photochemical energy to facilitate glycosylation. This Minireview presents a brief overview of the latest trends in chemical glycosylation, with emphasis on the stereoselective synthetic protocols developed in the past decade.

Methods for 2-Deoxyglycoside Synthesis

Deoxy-sugars often play a critical role in modulating the potency of many bioactive natural products. Accordingly, there has been sustained interest in methods for their synthesis over the past several decades. The focus of much of this work has been on developing new glycosylation reactions that permit the mild and selective construction of deoxyglycosides. This Review covers classical approaches to deoxyglycoside synthesis, as well as more recently developed chemistry that aims to control the selectivity of the reaction through rational design of the promoter. Where relevant, the application of this chemistry to natural product synthesis will also be described.

1,3-Dibromo-5,5-dimethylhydantoin as promoter for glycosylations using thioglycosides

1,3-Dibromo-5,5-dimethylhydantoin (DBDMH), an inexpensive, non-toxic and stable reagent, is a competent activator of thioglycosides for glycosidic bond formation. Excellent yields were obtained when triflic acid (TfOH) or trimethylsilyl trifluoromethanesulfonate (TMSOTf) were employed as co-promoters in solution or automated glycan assembly on solid phase.

Blue Light Photocatalytic Glycosylation without Electrophilic Additives

Photocatalytic formation of glycosidic bonds employing stable and readily accessible O-glycosyl derivatives of 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidin-1-ol is presented that employs an iridium-based photocatalyst and blue LEDs. The reaction proceeds at room temperature and in the absence of additives other than 4 Å molecular sieves. Stereoselectivities are modest but nevertheless dependent on the anomeric configuration of the donor, suggesting a substantial degree of concerted character.

Recent advances in photoinduced glycosylation: oligosaccharides, glycoconjugates and their synthetic applications

Carbohydrates have been demonstrated to perform imperative act in biological processes. This review highlights recent uses of photoinduced glycosylation in carbohydrate chemistry for the synthesis of oligosaccharides, thiosugars, glycoconjugates and glycoprotein.

Chemical O-Glycosylations: An Overview

The development of glycobiology relies on the sources of particular oligosaccharides in their purest forms. As the isolation of the oligosaccharide structures from natural sources is not a reliable option for providing samples with homogeneity, chemical means become pertinent. The growing demand for diverse oligosaccharide structures has prompted the advancement of chemical strategies to stitch sugar molecules with precise stereo- and regioselectivity through the formation of glycosidic bonds. This Review will focus on the key developments towards chemical O-glycosylations in the current century. Synthesis of novel glycosyl donors and acceptors and their unique activation for successful glycosylation are discussed. This Review concludes with a summary of recent developments and comments on future prospects.

Investigation of α-Thioglycoside Donors: Reactivity Studies toward Configuration-Controlled Orthogonal Activation in One-Pot Systems

The influence of anomeric configuration upon thioglycoside donors remains relatively unexplored. Utilizing methodology developed for the stereoselective and high-yielding synthesis of α-glycosyl thiols, a series of α-thioglycosides were synthesized, and their reactivity was compared to that of their β-counterparts. The highly selective activation observed for anomeric pairs containing a 2-O-acyl moiety and additional findings are reported. Application of a pair of "superarmed" thioglycosides to a one-pot oligosaccharide system is also described, in which selectivity is a result of configuration-based orthogonal activation.

A versatile glycosylation strategy via Au(iii) catalyzed activation of thioglycoside donors

Among various methods of chemical glycosylations, glycosylation by activation of thioglycoside donors using a thiophilic promoter is an important strategy. Many promoters have been developed for the activation of thioglycosides. However, incompatibility with substrates having alkenes and the requirement of a stoichiometric amount of promoters, co-promoters and extreme temperatures are some of the limitations. We have developed an efficient methodology for glycosylation via the activation of thioglycoside donors using a catalytic amount of AuCl3 and without any co-promoter. The reaction is very fast, high-yielding and very facile at room temperature. The versatility of this method is evident from the facile glycosylation with both armed and disarmed donors and sterically demanding substrates (acceptors/donors) at ambient conditions, from the stability of the common protecting groups, and from the compatibility of alkene-containing substrates during the reaction.