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Serna-García R, Silvia Morlino M, Bucci L, Savio F, Favaro L, Morosinotto T, Seco A, Bouzas A, Campanaro S, Treu L. Biological carbon capture from biogas streams: Insights into Cupriavidus necator autotrophic growth and transcriptional profile. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2024; 399:130556. [PMID: 38460564 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2024.130556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2024] [Revised: 02/25/2024] [Accepted: 03/06/2024] [Indexed: 03/11/2024]
Abstract
Recycling carbon-rich wastes into high-value platform chemicals through biological processes provides a sustainable alternative to petrochemicals. Cupriavidus necator, known for converting carbon dioxide (CO2) into polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) was studied for the first time using biogas streams as the sole carbon source. The bacterium efficiently consumed biogenic CO2 from raw biogas with methane at high concentrations (50%) proving non-toxic. Continuous addition of H2 and O2 enabled growth trends comparable to glucose-based heterotrophic growth. Transcriptomic analysis revealed CO2-adaptated cultures exhibited upregulation of hydrogenases and Calvin cycle enzymes, as well as genes related to electron transport, nutrient uptake, and glyoxylate cycle. Non-adapted samples displayed activation of stress response mechanisms, suggesting potential lags in large-scale processes. These findings showcase the setting of growth parameters for a pioneering biological biogas upgrading strategy, emphasizing the importance of inoculum adaptation for autotrophic growth and providing potential targets for genetic engineering to push PHA yields in future applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca Serna-García
- CALAGUA - Unidad Mixta UV-UPV, Department of Chemical Engineering, Universitat de València, Avinguda de la Universitat s/n, 46100 Burjassot, València, Spain.
| | - Maria Silvia Morlino
- Department of Biology, Università di Padova, Via U. Bassi 58/b, 35121, Padova, Italy
| | - Luca Bucci
- Department of Biology, Università di Padova, Via U. Bassi 58/b, 35121, Padova, Italy
| | - Filippo Savio
- Department of Biology, Università di Padova, Via U. Bassi 58/b, 35121, Padova, Italy
| | - Lorenzo Favaro
- Department of Agronomy, Food, Natural resources, Animals and Environment, Università di Padova, Viale dell'università 16, 35020, Legnaro, Italy; Department of Microbiology, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland 7602, South Africa
| | - Tomas Morosinotto
- Department of Biology, Università di Padova, Via U. Bassi 58/b, 35121, Padova, Italy
| | - Aurora Seco
- CALAGUA - Unidad Mixta UV-UPV, Department of Chemical Engineering, Universitat de València, Avinguda de la Universitat s/n, 46100 Burjassot, València, Spain
| | - Alberto Bouzas
- CALAGUA - Unidad Mixta UV-UPV, Department of Chemical Engineering, Universitat de València, Avinguda de la Universitat s/n, 46100 Burjassot, València, Spain
| | - Stefano Campanaro
- Department of Biology, Università di Padova, Via U. Bassi 58/b, 35121, Padova, Italy
| | - Laura Treu
- Department of Biology, Università di Padova, Via U. Bassi 58/b, 35121, Padova, Italy
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2
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Fu B, Mao X, Park Y, Zhao Z, Yan T, Jung W, Francis DH, Li W, Pian B, Salimijazi F, Suri M, Hanrath T, Barstow B, Chen P. Single-cell multimodal imaging uncovers energy conversion pathways in biohybrids. Nat Chem 2023; 15:1400-1407. [PMID: 37500951 DOI: 10.1038/s41557-023-01285-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2022] [Accepted: 06/28/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023]
Abstract
Microbe-semiconductor biohybrids, which integrate microbial enzymatic synthesis with the light-harvesting capabilities of inorganic semiconductors, have emerged as promising solar-to-chemical conversion systems. Improving the electron transport at the nano-bio interface and inside cells is important for boosting conversion efficiencies, yet the underlying mechanism is challenging to study by bulk measurements owing to the heterogeneities of both constituents. Here we develop a generalizable, quantitative multimodal microscopy platform that combines multi-channel optical imaging and photocurrent mapping to probe such biohybrids down to single- to sub-cell/particle levels. We uncover and differentiate the critical roles of different hydrogenases in the lithoautotrophic bacterium Ralstonia eutropha for bioplastic formation, discover this bacterium's surprisingly large nanoampere-level electron-uptake capability, and dissect the cross-membrane electron-transport pathways. This imaging platform, and the associated analytical framework, can uncover electron-transport mechanisms in various types of biohybrid, and potentially offers a means to use and engineer R. eutropha for efficient chemical production coupled with photocatalytic materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bing Fu
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Xianwen Mao
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Institute of Functional Intelligent Materials, and Centre for Advanced 2D Materials, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Youngchan Park
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Zhiheng Zhao
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Tianlei Yan
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Won Jung
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Danielle H Francis
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
- Friends School of Baltimore, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Wenjie Li
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Brooke Pian
- Department of Biological and Environmental Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Farshid Salimijazi
- Department of Biological and Environmental Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Mokshin Suri
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Tobias Hanrath
- Robert F. Smith School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Buz Barstow
- Department of Biological and Environmental Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Peng Chen
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA.
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3
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Myers B, Catrambone F, Allen S, Hill PJ, Kovacs K, Rawson FJ. Engineering nanowires in bacteria to elucidate electron transport structural-functional relationships. Sci Rep 2023; 13:8843. [PMID: 37258594 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-35553-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2023] [Accepted: 05/19/2023] [Indexed: 06/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Bacterial pilin nanowires are protein complexes, suggested to possess electroactive capabilities forming part of the cells' bioenergetic programming. Their role is thought to be linked to facilitating electron transfer between cells and the external environment to permit metabolism and cell-to-cell communication. There is a significant debate, with varying hypotheses as to the nature of the proteins currently lying between type-IV pilin-based nanowires and polymerised cytochrome-based filaments. Importantly, to date, there is a very limited structure-function analysis of these structures within whole bacteria. In this work, we engineered Cupriavidus necator H16, a model autotrophic organism to express differing aromatic modifications of type-IV pilus proteins to establish structure-function relationships on conductivity and the effects this has on pili structure. This was achieved via a combination of high-resolution PeakForce tunnelling atomic force microscopy (PeakForce TUNA™) technology, alongside conventional electrochemical approaches enabling the elucidation of conductive nanowires emanating from whole bacterial cells. This work is the first example of functional type-IV pili protein nanowires produced under aerobic conditions using a Cupriavidus necator chassis. This work has far-reaching consequences in understanding the basis of bio-electrical communication between cells and with their external environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ben Myers
- Bioelectronics Laboratory, Regenerative Medicine and Cellular Therapies, School of Pharmacy, Biodiscovery Institute, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK
- Molecular Therapeutics and Formulation Division, School of Pharmacy, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK
| | - Francesco Catrambone
- BBSRC/EPSRC Synthetic Biology Research Centre, School of Life Sciences, Biodiscovery Institute, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK
| | - Stephanie Allen
- Molecular Therapeutics and Formulation Division, School of Pharmacy, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK
| | - Phil J Hill
- Division of Microbiology, Brewing and Biotechnology, School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington Campus, Leicestershire, LE12 5RD, UK
| | - Katalin Kovacs
- Bioelectronics Laboratory, Regenerative Medicine and Cellular Therapies, School of Pharmacy, Biodiscovery Institute, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK.
- Molecular Therapeutics and Formulation Division, School of Pharmacy, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK.
| | - Frankie J Rawson
- Bioelectronics Laboratory, Regenerative Medicine and Cellular Therapies, School of Pharmacy, Biodiscovery Institute, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK.
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4
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Wickham-Smith C, Malys N, Winzer K. Improving carbon monoxide tolerance of Cupriavidus necator H16 through adaptive laboratory evolution. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2023; 11:1178536. [PMID: 37168609 PMCID: PMC10164946 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2023.1178536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2023] [Accepted: 04/06/2023] [Indexed: 05/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: The toxic gas carbon monoxide (CO) is abundantly present in synthesis gas (syngas) and certain industrial waste gases that can serve as feedstocks for the biological production of industrially significant chemicals and fuels. For efficient bacterial growth to occur, and to increase productivity and titres, a high resistance to the gas is required. The aerobic bacterium Cupriavidus necator H16 can grow on CO2 + H2, although it cannot utilise CO as a source of carbon and energy. This study aimed to increase its CO resistance through adaptive laboratory evolution. Results: To increase the tolerance of C. necator to CO, the organism was continually subcultured in the presence of CO both heterotrophically and autotrophically. Ten individual cultures were evolved heterotrophically with fructose in this manner and eventually displayed a clear growth advantage over the wild type strain. Next-generation sequencing revealed several mutations, including a single point mutation upstream of a cytochrome bd ubiquinol oxidase operon (cydA2B2), which was present in all evolved isolates. When a subset of these mutations was engineered into the parental H16 strain, only the cydA2B2 upstream mutation enabled faster growth in the presence of CO. Expression analysis, mutation, overexpression and complementation suggested that cydA2B2 transcription is upregulated in the evolved isolates, resulting in increased CO tolerance under heterotrophic but not autotrophic conditions. However, through subculturing on a syngas-like mixture with increasing CO concentrations, C. necator could also be evolved to tolerate high CO concentrations under autotrophic conditions. A mutation in the gene for the soluble [NiFe]-hydrogenase subunit hoxH was identified in the evolved isolates. When the resulting amino acid change was engineered into the parental strain, autotrophic CO resistance was conferred. A strain constitutively expressing cydA2B2 and the mutated hoxH gene exhibited high CO tolerance under both heterotrophic and autotrophic conditions. Conclusion: C. necator was evolved to tolerate high concentrations of CO, a phenomenon which was dependent on the terminal respiratory cytochrome bd ubiquinol oxidase when grown heterotrophically and the soluble [NiFe]-hydrogenase when grown autotrophically. A strain exhibiting high tolerance under both conditions was created and presents a promising chassis for syngas-based bioproduction processes.
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5
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Calvey CH, Sànchez I Nogué V, White AM, Kneucker CM, Woodworth SP, Alt HM, Eckert CA, Johnson CW. Improving growth of Cupriavidus necator H16 on formate using adaptive laboratory evolution-informed engineering. Metab Eng 2023; 75:78-90. [PMID: 36368470 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymben.2022.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2022] [Revised: 10/28/2022] [Accepted: 10/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Conversion of CO2 to value-added products presents an opportunity to reduce GHG emissions while generating revenue. Formate, which can be generated by the electrochemical reduction of CO2, has been proposed as a promising intermediate compound for microbial upgrading. Here we present progress towards improving the soil bacterium Cupriavidus necator H16, which is capable of growing on formate as its sole source of carbon and energy using the Calvin-Benson-Bassham (CBB) cycle, as a host for formate utilization. Using adaptive laboratory evolution, we generated several isolates that exhibited faster growth rates on formate. The genomes of these isolates were sequenced, and resulting mutations were systematically reintroduced by metabolic engineering, to identify those that improved growth. The metabolic impact of several mutations was investigated further using RNA-seq transcriptomics. We found that deletion of a transcriptional regulator implicated in quorum sensing, PhcA, reduced expression of several operons and led to improved growth on formate. Growth was also improved by deleting large genomic regions present on the extrachromosomal megaplasmid pHG1, particularly two hydrogenase operons and the megaplasmid CBB operon, one of two copies present in the genome. Based on these findings, we generated a rationally engineered ΔphcA and megaplasmid-deficient strain that exhibited a 24% faster maximum growth rate on formate. Moreover, this strain achieved a 7% growth rate improvement on succinate and a 19% increase on fructose, demonstrating the broad utility of microbial genome reduction. This strain has the potential to serve as an improved microbial chassis for biological conversion of formate to value-added products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher H Calvey
- Renewable Resources and Enabling Sciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, 80401, USA
| | - Violeta Sànchez I Nogué
- Renewable Resources and Enabling Sciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, 80401, USA
| | - Aleena M White
- Renewable Resources and Enabling Sciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, 80401, USA
| | - Colin M Kneucker
- Renewable Resources and Enabling Sciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, 80401, USA
| | - Sean P Woodworth
- Renewable Resources and Enabling Sciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, 80401, USA
| | - Hannah M Alt
- Renewable Resources and Enabling Sciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, 80401, USA
| | - Carrie A Eckert
- Biosciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA
| | - Christopher W Johnson
- Renewable Resources and Enabling Sciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, 80401, USA.
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6
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Salinas A, McGregor C, Irorere V, Arenas-López C, Bommareddy RR, Winzer K, Minton NP, Kovács K. Metabolic engineering of Cupriavidus necator H16 for heterotrophic and autotrophic production of 3-hydroxypropionic acid. Metab Eng 2022; 74:178-190. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ymben.2022.10.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2022] [Revised: 09/29/2022] [Accepted: 10/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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7
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The Carbon Source Effect on the Production of Ralstonia eutropha H16 and Proteomic Response Underlying Targeting the Bioconversion with Solar Fuels. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 2022; 194:3212-3227. [PMID: 35349090 DOI: 10.1007/s12010-022-03887-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2022] [Accepted: 03/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Chemoautotrophic bacterium Ralstonia eutropha H16 can fix CO2 to bioplastic and is potentially useful for CO2 neutralization. Targeting the solar fuel-based plastic biomanufactory, the polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) production between heterotrophy and chemoautotrophy conditions was evaluated and the proteomic responses of the R. eutropha H16 cells to different carbon and energy sources were investigated. The results show that the chemoautotrophic mode hardly affected the cellular PHB accumulation capacity. Benefited from the high coverage proteome data, the global response of R. eutropha H16 to different carbon and energy sources was presented with a 95% KEGG pathway annotation, and the genome-wide location-related protein expression pattern was also identified. PHB depolymerase Q0K9H3 was found as a key protein responding to the low carbon input while CO2 and H2 were used, and will be a new regulation target for further high PHB production based on solar fuels.
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8
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Jahn M, Crang N, Janasch M, Hober A, Forsström B, Kimler K, Mattausch A, Chen Q, Asplund-Samuelsson J, Hudson EP. Protein allocation and utilization in the versatile chemolithoautotroph Cupriavidus necator. eLife 2021; 10:69019. [PMID: 34723797 PMCID: PMC8591527 DOI: 10.7554/elife.69019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 10/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacteria must balance the different needs for substrate assimilation, growth
functions, and resilience in order to thrive in their environment. Of all
cellular macromolecules, the bacterial proteome is by far the most important
resource and its size is limited. Here, we investigated how the highly versatile
'knallgas' bacterium Cupriavidus necator reallocates protein
resources when grown on different limiting substrates and with different growth
rates. We determined protein quantity by mass spectrometry and estimated enzyme
utilization by resource balance analysis modeling. We found that C.
necator invests a large fraction of its proteome in functions that
are hardly utilized. Of the enzymes that are utilized, many are present in
excess abundance. One prominent example is the strong expression of CBB cycle
genes such as Rubisco during growth on fructose. Modeling and mutant competition
experiments suggest that CO2-reassimilation through Rubisco does not
provide a fitness benefit for heterotrophic growth, but is rather an investment
in readiness for autotrophy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Jahn
- School of Engineering Sciences in Chemistry, Biotechnology and Health, Science for Life Laboratory, KTH - Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Nick Crang
- School of Engineering Sciences in Chemistry, Biotechnology and Health, Science for Life Laboratory, KTH - Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Markus Janasch
- School of Engineering Sciences in Chemistry, Biotechnology and Health, Science for Life Laboratory, KTH - Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Andreas Hober
- School of Engineering Sciences in Chemistry, Biotechnology and Health, Science for Life Laboratory, KTH - Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Björn Forsström
- School of Engineering Sciences in Chemistry, Biotechnology and Health, Science for Life Laboratory, KTH - Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Kyle Kimler
- School of Engineering Sciences in Chemistry, Biotechnology and Health, Science for Life Laboratory, KTH - Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Alexander Mattausch
- School of Engineering Sciences in Chemistry, Biotechnology and Health, Science for Life Laboratory, KTH - Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Qi Chen
- School of Engineering Sciences in Chemistry, Biotechnology and Health, Science for Life Laboratory, KTH - Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Johannes Asplund-Samuelsson
- School of Engineering Sciences in Chemistry, Biotechnology and Health, Science for Life Laboratory, KTH - Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Elton Paul Hudson
- School of Engineering Sciences in Chemistry, Biotechnology and Health, Science for Life Laboratory, KTH - Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
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9
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Gutschmann B, Bock MCE, Jahns S, Neubauer P, Brigham CJ, Riedel SL. Untargeted metabolomics analysis of Ralstonia eutropha during plant oil cultivations reveals the presence of a fucose salvage pathway. Sci Rep 2021; 11:14267. [PMID: 34253787 PMCID: PMC8275744 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-93720-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2021] [Accepted: 06/29/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Process engineering of biotechnological productions can benefit greatly from comprehensive analysis of microbial physiology and metabolism. Ralstonia eutropha (syn. Cupriavidus necator) is one of the best studied organisms for the synthesis of biodegradable polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA). A comprehensive metabolomic study during bioreactor cultivations with the wild-type (H16) and an engineered (Re2058/pCB113) R. eutropha strain for short- and or medium-chain-length PHA synthesis has been carried out. PHA production from plant oil was triggered through nitrogen limitation. Sample quenching allowed to conserve the metabolic states of the cells for subsequent untargeted metabolomic analysis, which consisted of GC-MS and LC-MS analysis. Multivariate data analysis resulted in identification of significant changes in concentrations of oxidative stress-related metabolites and a subsequent accumulation of antioxidative compounds. Moreover, metabolites involved in the de novo synthesis of GDP-L-fucose as well as the fucose salvage pathway were identified. The related formation of fucose-containing exopolysaccharides potentially supports the emulsion-based growth of R. eutropha on plant oils.
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Affiliation(s)
- Björn Gutschmann
- grid.6734.60000 0001 2292 8254Chair of Bioprocess Engineering, Institute of Biotechnology, Technische Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Martina C. E. Bock
- grid.6734.60000 0001 2292 8254Chair of Bioprocess Engineering, Institute of Biotechnology, Technische Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Stefan Jahns
- grid.6734.60000 0001 2292 8254Chair of Bioprocess Engineering, Institute of Biotechnology, Technische Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Peter Neubauer
- grid.6734.60000 0001 2292 8254Chair of Bioprocess Engineering, Institute of Biotechnology, Technische Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Christopher J. Brigham
- grid.422596.e0000 0001 0639 028XSchool of Engineering, Wentworth Institute of Technology, Boston, MA USA
| | - Sebastian L. Riedel
- grid.6734.60000 0001 2292 8254Chair of Bioprocess Engineering, Institute of Biotechnology, Technische Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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10
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Unrean P, Tee KL, Wong TS. Metabolic pathway analysis for in silico design of efficient autotrophic production of advanced biofuels. BIORESOUR BIOPROCESS 2019. [DOI: 10.1186/s40643-019-0282-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
AbstractHerein, autotrophic metabolism of Cupriavidus necator H16 growing on CO2, H2 and O2 gas mixture was analyzed by metabolic pathway analysis tools, specifically elementary mode analysis (EMA) and flux balance analysis (FBA). As case studies, recombinant strains of C. necator H16 for the production of short-chain (isobutanol) and long-chain (hexadecanol) alcohols were constructed and examined by a combined tools of EMA and FBA to comprehensively identify the cell’s metabolic flux profiles and its phenotypic spaces for the autotrophic production of recombinant products. The effect of genetic perturbations via gene deletion and overexpression on phenotypic space of the organism was simulated to improve strain performance for efficient bioconversion of CO2 to products at high yield and high productivity. EMA identified multiple gene deletion together with controlling gas input composition to limit phenotypic space and push metabolic fluxes towards high product yield, while FBA identified target gene overexpression to debottleneck rate-limiting fluxes, hence pulling more fluxes to enhance production rate of the products. A combination of gene deletion and overexpression resulted in designed mutant strains with a predicted yield of 0.21–0.42 g/g for isobutanol and 0.20–0.34 g/g for hexadecanol from CO2. The in silico-designed mutants were also predicted to show high productivity of up to 38.4 mmol/cell-h for isobutanol and 9.1 mmol/cell-h for hexadecanol under autotrophic cultivation. The metabolic modeling and analysis presented in this study could potentially serve as a valuable guidance for future metabolic engineering of C. necator H16 for an efficient CO2-to-biofuels conversion.
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11
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Lauterbach L, Lenz O. How to make the reducing power of H 2 available for in vivo biosyntheses and biotransformations. Curr Opin Chem Biol 2018; 49:91-96. [PMID: 30544016 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2018.11.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2018] [Revised: 11/15/2018] [Accepted: 11/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Solar-driven electrolysis enables sustainable production of molecular hydrogen (H2), which represents a cheap and carbon-free reductant. Knallgas bacteria like Ralstonia eutropha are able to split H2 to supply energy in form of ATP and NADH, which can be subsequently used to power reactions of interest. R. eutropha employs the Calvin-Benson-Bassham cycle for the fixation of CO2, which is considered as an abundant and non-competing raw material. In this article, we summarize state-of-the-art approaches for H2-driven biosyntheses using engineered R. eutropha. Furthermore, we describe strategies for synthetic H2-driven NADH recycling. Major challenges for technical application and future perspectives are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lars Lauterbach
- Technische Universität Berlin, Department of Chemistry, Straße des 17. Juni 135, 10623 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Oliver Lenz
- Technische Universität Berlin, Department of Chemistry, Straße des 17. Juni 135, 10623 Berlin, Germany
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12
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Lenz O, Lauterbach L, Frielingsdorf S. O2-tolerant [NiFe]-hydrogenases of Ralstonia eutropha H16: Physiology, molecular biology, purification, and biochemical analysis. Methods Enzymol 2018; 613:117-151. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.mie.2018.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/08/2022]
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13
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Wessels HJCT, de Almeida NM, Kartal B, Keltjens JT. Bacterial Electron Transfer Chains Primed by Proteomics. Adv Microb Physiol 2016; 68:219-352. [PMID: 27134025 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ampbs.2016.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Electron transport phosphorylation is the central mechanism for most prokaryotic species to harvest energy released in the respiration of their substrates as ATP. Microorganisms have evolved incredible variations on this principle, most of these we perhaps do not know, considering that only a fraction of the microbial richness is known. Besides these variations, microbial species may show substantial versatility in using respiratory systems. In connection herewith, regulatory mechanisms control the expression of these respiratory enzyme systems and their assembly at the translational and posttranslational levels, to optimally accommodate changes in the supply of their energy substrates. Here, we present an overview of methods and techniques from the field of proteomics to explore bacterial electron transfer chains and their regulation at levels ranging from the whole organism down to the Ångstrom scales of protein structures. From the survey of the literature on this subject, it is concluded that proteomics, indeed, has substantially contributed to our comprehending of bacterial respiratory mechanisms, often in elegant combinations with genetic and biochemical approaches. However, we also note that advanced proteomics offers a wealth of opportunities, which have not been exploited at all, or at best underexploited in hypothesis-driving and hypothesis-driven research on bacterial bioenergetics. Examples obtained from the related area of mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation research, where the application of advanced proteomics is more common, may illustrate these opportunities.
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Affiliation(s)
- H J C T Wessels
- Nijmegen Center for Mitochondrial Disorders, Radboud Proteomics Centre, Translational Metabolic Laboratory, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - N M de Almeida
- Institute of Water and Wetland Research, Radboud University Nijmegen, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - B Kartal
- Institute of Water and Wetland Research, Radboud University Nijmegen, Nijmegen, The Netherlands; Laboratory of Microbiology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - J T Keltjens
- Institute of Water and Wetland Research, Radboud University Nijmegen, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
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14
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Dürre P, Eikmanns BJ. C1-carbon sources for chemical and fuel production by microbial gas fermentation. Curr Opin Biotechnol 2015; 35:63-72. [DOI: 10.1016/j.copbio.2015.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 164] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2015] [Revised: 03/06/2015] [Accepted: 03/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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15
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Wendler S, Otto A, Ortseifen V, Bonn F, Neshat A, Schneiker-Bekel S, Walter F, Wolf T, Zemke T, Wehmeier UF, Hecker M, Kalinowski J, Becher D, Pühler A. Comprehensive proteome analysis of Actinoplanes sp. SE50/110 highlighting the location of proteins encoded by the acarbose and the pyochelin biosynthesis gene cluster. J Proteomics 2015; 125:1-16. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2015.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2014] [Revised: 04/02/2015] [Accepted: 04/12/2015] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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16
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Jugder BE, Chen Z, Ping DTT, Lebhar H, Welch J, Marquis CP. An analysis of the changes in soluble hydrogenase and global gene expression in Cupriavidus necator (Ralstonia eutropha) H16 grown in heterotrophic diauxic batch culture. Microb Cell Fact 2015; 14:42. [PMID: 25880663 PMCID: PMC4377017 DOI: 10.1186/s12934-015-0226-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2015] [Accepted: 03/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Soluble hydrogenases (SH) are enzymes that catalyse the oxidation of molecular hydrogen. The SH enzyme from Cupriavidus necator H16 is relatively oxygen tolerant and makes an attractive target for potential application in biochemical hydrogen fuel cells. Expression of the enzyme can be mediated by derepression of the hox promoter system under heterotrophic conditions. However, the overall impact of hox derepression, from a transcriptomic perspective, has never been previously reported. Results Derepression of hydrogenase gene expression upon fructose depletion was confirmed in replicate experiments. Using qRT-PCR, hoxF was 4.6-fold up-regulated, hypF2 was up-regulated in the cells grown 2.2-fold and the regulatory gene hoxA was up-regulated by a mean factor of 4.5. A full transcriptomic evaluation revealed a substantial shift in the global pattern of gene expression. In addition to up-regulation of genes associated with hydrogenase expression, significant changes were observed in genes associated with energy transduction, amino acid metabolism, transcription and translation (and regulation thereof), genes associated with cell stress, lipid and cell wall biogenesis and other functions, including cell motility. Conclusions We report the first full transcriptome analysis of C. necator H16 grown heterotrophically on fructose and glycerol in diauxic batch culture, which permits expression of soluble hydrogenase under heterotrophic conditions. The data presented deepens our understanding of the changes in global gene expression patterns that occur during the switch to growth on glycerol and suggests that energy deficit is a key driver for induction of hydrogenase expression in this organism. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12934-015-0226-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bat-Erdene Jugder
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, 2052, Australia.
| | - Zhiliang Chen
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, 2052, Australia. .,Systems Biology Initiative, University of New South Wales, Sydney, 2052, Australia.
| | - Darren Tan Tek Ping
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, 2052, Australia.
| | - Helene Lebhar
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, 2052, Australia.
| | - Jeffrey Welch
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, 2052, Australia.
| | - Christopher P Marquis
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, 2052, Australia.
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17
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Otto A, Becher D, Schmidt F. Quantitative proteomics in the field of microbiology. Proteomics 2014; 14:547-65. [PMID: 24376008 DOI: 10.1002/pmic.201300403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2013] [Revised: 11/15/2013] [Accepted: 12/06/2013] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Quantitative proteomics has become an indispensable analytical tool for microbial research. Modern microbial proteomics covers a wide range of topics in basic and applied research from in vitro characterization of single organisms to unravel the physiological implications of stress/starvation to description of the proteome content of a cell at a given time. With the techniques available, ranging from classical gel-based procedures to modern MS-based quantitative techniques, including metabolic and chemical labeling, as well as label-free techniques, quantitative proteomics is today highly successful in sophisticated settings of high complexity such as host-pathogen interactions, mixed microbial communities, and microbial metaproteomics. In this review, we will focus on the vast range of techniques practically applied in current research with an introduction of the workflows used for quantitative comparisons, a description of the advantages/disadvantages of the various methods, reference to hallmark publications and presentation of applications in current microbial research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Otto
- Institute for Microbiology, Ernst Moritz Arndt University Greifswald, Germany
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18
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Kohlmann Y, Pohlmann A, Schwartz E, Zühlke D, Otto A, Albrecht D, Grimmler C, Ehrenreich A, Voigt B, Becher D, Hecker M, Friedrich B, Cramm R. Coping with Anoxia: A Comprehensive Proteomic and Transcriptomic Survey of Denitrification. J Proteome Res 2014; 13:4325-38. [DOI: 10.1021/pr500491r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yvonne Kohlmann
- Institut
für Biologie, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Chausseestraße
117, 10115 Berlin, Germany
| | - Anne Pohlmann
- Institut
für Biologie, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Chausseestraße
117, 10115 Berlin, Germany
| | - Edward Schwartz
- Institut
für Biologie, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Chausseestraße
117, 10115 Berlin, Germany
| | - Daniela Zühlke
- Institut
für Mikrobiologie, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-Universität Greifswald, Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Straße
15, 17489 Greifswald, Germany
| | - Andreas Otto
- Institut
für Mikrobiologie, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-Universität Greifswald, Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Straße
15, 17489 Greifswald, Germany
| | - Dirk Albrecht
- Institut
für Mikrobiologie, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-Universität Greifswald, Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Straße
15, 17489 Greifswald, Germany
| | - Christina Grimmler
- Forschungsstelle für Nahrungsmittelqualität der Universität Bayreuth, 95326 Kulmbach, Germany
| | - Armin Ehrenreich
- Lehrstuhl
für Mikrobiologie, Technische Universität München, Emil-Ramann-Straße
4, 85354 Freising, Germany
| | - Birgit Voigt
- Institut
für Mikrobiologie, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-Universität Greifswald, Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Straße
15, 17489 Greifswald, Germany
| | - Dörte Becher
- Institut
für Mikrobiologie, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-Universität Greifswald, Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Straße
15, 17489 Greifswald, Germany
| | - Michael Hecker
- Institut
für Mikrobiologie, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-Universität Greifswald, Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Straße
15, 17489 Greifswald, Germany
| | - Bärbel Friedrich
- Institut
für Biologie, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Chausseestraße
117, 10115 Berlin, Germany
| | - Rainer Cramm
- Institut
für Biologie, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Chausseestraße
117, 10115 Berlin, Germany
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19
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Characterization and modification of enzymes in the 2-ketoisovalerate biosynthesis pathway of Ralstonia eutropha H16. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2014; 99:761-74. [DOI: 10.1007/s00253-014-5965-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2014] [Revised: 07/15/2014] [Accepted: 07/16/2014] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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20
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Lauterbach L, Lenz O. Catalytic production of hydrogen peroxide and water by oxygen-tolerant [NiFe]-hydrogenase during H2 cycling in the presence of O2. J Am Chem Soc 2013; 135:17897-905. [PMID: 24180286 DOI: 10.1021/ja408420d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Hydrogenases control the H2-related metabolism in many microbes. Most of these enzymes are prone to immediate inactivation by O2. However, a few members of the subclass of [NiFe]-hydrogenases are able to convert H2 into protons and electrons even in the presence of O2, making them attractive for biotechnological application. Recent studies on O2-tolerant membrane-bound hydrogenases indicate that the mechanism of O2 tolerance relies on their capability to completely reduce O2 with four electrons to harmless water. In order to verify this hypothesis, we probed the O2 reduction capacity of the soluble, NAD(+)-reducing [NiFe]-hydrogenase (SH) from Ralstonia eutropha H16. A newly established, homologous overexpression allowed the purification of up to 90 mg of homogeneous and highly active enzyme from 10 g of cell material. We showed that the SH produces trace amounts of superoxide in the course of H2-driven NAD(+) reduction in the presence of O2. However, the major products of the SH-mediated oxidase activity was in fact hydrogen peroxide and water as shown by the mass spectrometric detection of H2(18)O formed from H2 and isotopically labeled (18)O2. Water release was also observed when the enzyme was incubated with NADH and (18)O2, demonstrating the importance of reverse electron flow to the [NiFe] active site for O2 reduction. A comparison of the turnover rates for H2 and O2 revealed that in the presence of twice the ambient level of O2, up to 3% of the electrons generated through H2 oxidation serve as "health insurance" and are reused for O2 reduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lars Lauterbach
- Institut für Biologie/Mikrobiologie, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin , Chausseestrasse 117, 10115 Berlin, Germany
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21
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Novel, oxygen-insensitive group 5 [NiFe]-hydrogenase in Ralstonia eutropha. Appl Environ Microbiol 2013; 79:5137-45. [PMID: 23793632 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01576-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Recently, a novel group of [NiFe]-hydrogenases has been defined that appear to have a great impact in the global hydrogen cycle. This so-called group 5 [NiFe]-hydrogenase is widespread in soil-living actinobacteria and can oxidize molecular hydrogen at atmospheric levels, which suggests a high affinity of the enzyme toward H2. Here, we provide a biochemical characterization of a group 5 hydrogenase from the betaproteobacterium Ralstonia eutropha H16. The hydrogenase was designated an actinobacterial hydrogenase (AH) and is catalytically active, as shown by the in vivo H2 uptake and by activity staining in native gels. However, the enzyme does not sustain autotrophic growth on H2. The AH was purified to homogeneity by affinity chromatography and consists of two subunits with molecular masses of 65 and 37 kDa. Among the electron acceptors tested, nitroblue tetrazolium chloride was reduced by the AH at highest rates. At 30°C and pH 8, the specific activity of the enzyme was 0.3 μmol of H2 per min and mg of protein. However, an unexpectedly high Michaelis constant (Km) for H2 of 3.6 ± 0.5 μM was determined, which is in contrast to the previously proposed low Km of group 5 hydrogenases and makes atmospheric H2 uptake by R. eutropha most unlikely. Amperometric activity measurements revealed that the AH maintains full H2 oxidation activity even at atmospheric oxygen concentrations, showing that the enzyme is insensitive toward O2.
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22
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Investigations on three genes in Ralstonia eutropha H16 encoding putative cyanophycin metabolizing enzymes. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2012; 97:3579-91. [PMID: 23224585 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-012-4599-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2012] [Revised: 11/11/2012] [Accepted: 11/13/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
The genome sequence of the facultative chemolithoautotrophic bacterium Ralstonia eutropha H16 exhibited two coding sequences with high homologies to cyanophycin synthetases (CphA) as well as one gene coding for a putative cyanophycinase (CphB). To investigate whether or not the genes cphA H16 (H16_A0774), cphA'H16 (H16_A0775) and cphB H16 (H16_B1013) encode active cyanophycin (CGP) metabolism proteins, several functional analyses were performed. Extensive in silico analysis revealed that all characteristic motifs are conserved within CphAH16, whereas CphA'H16 misses a large part of the so-called J-loop present in other active cyanophycin synthetases. Although transcription of both genes was demonstrated by RT-PCR, and heterologously expressed cphA genes led to light-scattering inclusions in recombinant cells of Escherichia coli, no CGP could be isolated from the cells or detected by HPLC analysis. For all enzyme assay experiments carried out, significant enzyme activities were determined for CphA and CphA' in recombinant E. coli cells if crude cell extracts were applied. Homologous expression of cphA genes in cells of R. eutropha H16∆phaC1 did not result in the formation of light-scattering inclusions, and no CGP could be isolated from the cells or detected by HPLC analysis. No transcription of cphB encoding a putative cyanophycinase could be detected by RT-PCR analysis and no overexpression was achieved in several strains of E. coli. Furthermore, no enzyme activity was detected by using CGP overlay agar plates.
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23
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Autotrophic production of stable-isotope-labeled arginine in Ralstonia eutropha strain H16. Appl Environ Microbiol 2012; 78:7884-90. [PMID: 22941075 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01972-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
With the aim of improving industrial-scale production of stable-isotope (SI)-labeled arginine, we have developed a system for the heterologous production of the arginine-containing polymer cyanophycin in recombinant strains of Ralstonia eutropha under lithoautotrophic growth conditions. We constructed an expression plasmid based on the cyanophycin synthetase gene (cphA) of Synechocystis sp. strain PCC6308 under the control of the strong P(cbbL) promoter of the R. eutropha H16 cbb(c) operon (coding for autotrophic CO(2) fixation). In batch cultures growing on H(2) and CO(2) as sole sources of energy and carbon, respectively, the cyanophycin content of cells reached 5.5% of cell dry weight (CDW). However, in the absence of selection (i.e., in antibiotic-free medium), plasmid loss led to a substantial reduction in yield. We therefore designed a novel addiction system suitable for use under lithoautotrophic conditions. Based on the hydrogenase transcription factor HoxA, this system mediated stabilized expression of cphA during lithoautotrophic cultivation without the need for antibiotics. The maximum yield of cyanophycin was 7.1% of CDW. To test the labeling efficiency of our expression system under actual production conditions, cells were grown in 10-liter-scale fermentations fed with (13)CO(2) and (15)NH(4)Cl, and the (13)C/(15)N-labeled cyanophycin was subsequently extracted by treatment with 0.1 M HCl; 2.5 to 5 g of [(13)C/(15)N]arginine was obtained per fed-batch fermentation, corresponding to isotope enrichments of 98.8% to 99.4%.
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24
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Kaddor C, Voigt B, Hecker M, Steinbüchel A. Impact of the Core Components of the Phosphoenolpyruvate-Carbohydrate Phosphotransferase System, HPr and EI, on Differential Protein Expression in Ralstonia eutropha H16. J Proteome Res 2012; 11:3624-36. [DOI: 10.1021/pr300042f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chlud Kaddor
- Institut für
Molekulare
Mikrobiologie und Biotechnologie, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Corrensstrasse
3, D-48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Birgit Voigt
- Institut für Mikrobiologie, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt Universität, Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Straße
15, D-17489 Greifswald, Germany
| | - Michael Hecker
- Institut für Mikrobiologie, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt Universität, Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Straße
15, D-17489 Greifswald, Germany
| | - Alexander Steinbüchel
- Institut für
Molekulare
Mikrobiologie und Biotechnologie, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Corrensstrasse
3, D-48149 Münster, Germany
- King Abdul Aziz University, Jeddah 22254,
Saudi Arabia
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