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Vinogradov SV, Bronich TK, Kabanov AV. Nanosized cationic hydrogels for drug delivery: preparation, properties and interactions with cells. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2002; 54:135-47. [PMID: 11755709 DOI: 10.1016/s0169-409x(01)00245-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 491] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
A new family of nanoscale materials on the basis of dispersed networks of cross-linked ionic and nonionic hydrophilic polymers is being developed. One example is the nanosized cationic network of cross-linked poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) and polyethyleneimine (PEI), PEO-cl-PEI nanogel. Interaction of anionic amphiphilic molecules or oligonucleotides with PEO-cl-PEI results in formation of nanocomposite materials in which the hydrophobic regions from polyion-complexes are joined by the hydrophilic PEO chains. Formation of polyion-complexes leads to the collapse of the dispersed gel particles. However, the complexes form stable aqueous dispersions due to the stabilizing effect of the PEO chain. These systems allow for immobilization of negatively charged biologically active compounds such as retinoic acid, indomethacin and oligonucleotides (bound to polycation chains) or hydrophobic molecules (incorporated into nonpolar regions of polyion-surfactant complexes). The nanogel particles carrying biological active compounds have been modified with polypeptide ligands to enhance receptor-mediated delivery. Efficient cellular uptake and intracellular release of oligonucleotides immobilized in PEO-cl-PEI nanogel have been demonstrated. Antisense activity of an oligonucleotide in a cell model was elevated as a result of formulation of oligonucleotide with the nanogel. This delivery system has a potential of enhancing oral and brain bioavailability of oligonucleotides as demonstrated using polarized epithelial and brain microvessel endothelial cell monolayers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Serguei V Vinogradov
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 986025 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA
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Akhtar S, Hughes MD, Khan A, Bibby M, Hussain M, Nawaz Q, Double J, Sayyed P. The delivery of antisense therapeutics. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2000; 44:3-21. [PMID: 11035194 DOI: 10.1016/s0169-409x(00)00080-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 167] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Antisense oligonucleotides, ribozymes and DNAzymes have emerged as novel, highly selective inhibitors or modulators of gene expression. Indeed, their use in the treatment of diseases arising from genetic abnormalities has become a real possibility over the past few years. The first antisense drug molecule is now available for clinical use in Europe and USA. However, their successful application in the clinic will require improvements in cellular targeting and intracellular delivery. This review aims to look at recent advances in the in vitro and in vivo delivery of antisense oligodeoxynucleotides and ribozymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Akhtar
- Aston Centre for Gene-based Therapeutics (ACGT), Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Institute, Aston University, Aston Triangle, B4 7ET, Birmingham, UK
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Emoto C, Yamazaki H, Yamasaki S, Shimada N, Nakajima M, Yokoi T. Use of everted sacs of mouse small intestine as enzyme sources for the study of drug oxidation activities in vitro. Xenobiotica 2000; 30:971-82. [PMID: 11315105 DOI: 10.1080/00498250050200122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
1. The use of everted sacs of the small intestine as an enzyme source for the study of the first-pass metabolism of xenobiotics by cytochrome P450s (P450, CYP) is described. Several drug oxidation activities for testosterone, chlorzoxazone, tolbutamide, bufuralol and warfarin were observed when everted sacs (1-cm segment) from different parts of mouse small intestine were incubated with an NADPH-generating system and each substrate. 2. Most of the drug hydroxylase activities resided in the upper part of mouse small intestine and these activities were much higher than those of intestinal microsomes. Drug oxidation activities decreased along the distance from the upper part of the small intestine except for warfarin hydroxylation. 3. Testosterone 6beta-hydroxylation in the everted sacs exhibited the highest catalytic activities among the drug oxidations tested here. In the upper part of the small intestine, the testosterone 6beta-hydroxylase activities of everted sacs subjected once to freezing and thawing were substantially decreased compared with the untreated everted sacs. 4. Testosterone 6beta-hydroxylase activities in the everted sacs of the small intestine were significantly inhibited by ketoconazole. Immunoreactive proteins using anti-CYP3A antibodies were detected in the upper and middle parts of the small intestine. 5. The results demonstrated that the upper part of the mouse small intestine serves as the major site for intestinal P450 mediated first-pass metabolism. Everted sacs of the small intestine are therefore useful for the study of drug metabolism as well as of transport and absorption.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Emoto
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kanazawa University, Japan
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Affiliation(s)
- S T Crooke
- ISIS Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Carlsbad, California 92008, USA
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Abstract
Cellular and intestinal absorption of naked oligonucleotides (ONs) is limited and still remains a developmental challenge. A previous report in the literature suggests that ON absorption occurs via a paracellular mechanism. The aim of this study was to test this hypothesis using rat and human intestine in a Ussing chamber and in Caco-2 cells. Transport of a (35)S-labelled mixed backbone ON (MBO) across human or rat intestinal tissue or across Caco-2 cells was measured after a 2-h incubation in the presence or absence of increasing MBO concentrations or with uptake inhibitors and enhancers. MBO intestinal absorption was compared with an internal standard, mannitol. (35)S-MBO demonstrated very little absorption (<1%) across rat and human intestinal tissues. Transport appeared to be unsaturable up to 500 microM, and relatively insensitive to compounds that opened tight junctions or inhibited P-glycoprotein. However, preliminary studies with Caco-2 cells suggest a possible saturable mechanism at higher ON concentrations. Confocal fluorescence microscopy studies show that fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-MBO was internalized into intestinal cells. Although some differences in ON transport were observed as a function of the transport model, MBO transport was mostly consistent with a transcellular, rather than a paracellular, absorption mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Wu-Pong
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298-0581, USA.
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Abstract
PURPOSE To investigate the potential use of PAMAM dendrimers for the delivery of antisense oligonucleotides into cells under conditions that mimic the in vivo environment. METHODS We used HeLa cells stably transfected with plasmid pLuc/705 which has a luciferase gene interrupted by a human beta-globin intron mutated at nucleotide 705, thus causing incorrect splicing. An antisense oligonucleotide overlapping the 705 splice site, when delivered effectively, corrects splicing and allows luciferase expression. The ability of dendrimers to deliver oligonucleotides to HeLa Luc/705 cells was evaluated in the absence or presence of serum. RESULTS PAMAM dendrimers formed stable complexes with oligonucleotides that had modest cytotoxicity and showed substantial delivery activity. The dose of the oligonucleotide, the charge ratio of oligonucleotide to dendrimer, and the size (generation) of the dendrimers were all critical variables for the antisense effect. The physical properties of dendrimer/oligonucleotide complexes were further investigated using sedimentation and gel electrophoresis methods. Effective oligonucleotide/generation 5 dendrimer complexes were macromolecular rather than particulate in nature, and were not sedimented at 100,000 RPM. Compared to other types of delivery agents, PAMAM dendrimers were more effective in delivering oligonucleotides into the nucleus of cells in the presence of serum proteins. CONCLUSIONS Our results suggest that PAMAM dendrimers form nonparticulate delivery complexes that function in the presence of serum proteins and thus may be suited for in vivo therapeutic applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Yoo
- Department of Pharmacology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill 27599, USA
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Affiliation(s)
- J B Smith
- Department of Microbiology, Kimmel Cancer Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
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Gammelgaard B, Jensen K, Steffansen B. In vitro metabolism and permeation studies in rat jejunum: organic chromium compared to inorganic chromium. J Trace Elem Med Biol 1999; 13:82-8. [PMID: 10445223 DOI: 10.1016/s0946-672x(99)80028-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of these studies was to compare the in vitro absorption of two inorganic chromium(III) compounds: chromium chloride and chromium nitrate, with organic chromium(III)-picolinate; and to investigate if any in vitro metabolism of chromium(VI) takes place. The in vitro metabolism studies showed that chromium (VI) was reduced by artificial gastric juice. The reduction followed first order kinetics with a half-life of 23 min. The studies also showed that the chromium picolinate complex was stable in artificial gastric juice for 4 hours. By the rat everted gut sac technique, chromium chloride, chromium nitrate and chromium picolinate penetrated the rat jejunum with 165 +/- 59, 160 +/- 26 and 127 +/- 36 ng chromium per g rat jejunum, respectively, whereas the permeability coefficients (Papp) were 0.7 +/- 0.3, 1.0 +/- 0.4, and 9.6 +/- 2.2 microns/min, respectively. Absorption studies on pig intestine in Ussing chambers showed a nearly total adsorption of chromium(III) by the chambers, resulting in unreliable data.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Gammelgaard
- Department of Analytical and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Royal Danish School of Pharmacy, Copenhagen, Denmark
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Juliano RL, Alahari S, Yoo H, Kole R, Cho M. Antisense pharmacodynamics: critical issues in the transport and delivery of antisense oligonucleotides. Pharm Res 1999; 16:494-502. [PMID: 10227702 DOI: 10.1023/a:1011958726518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
This review critically examines current understanding of the kinetics and biodistribution of antisense oligonucleotides, both at the cellular level and at the level of the intact organism. The pharmacodynamic relationships between biodistribution and the ultimate biological effects of antisense agents are considered. The problems and advantages inherent in the use of delivery systems are discussed in the light of further enhancing in vivo pharmacological actions of oligonucleotides.
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Affiliation(s)
- R L Juliano
- Department of Pharmacology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill 27599, USA.
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Ledoan T, Auger R, Benjahad A, Tenu JP. High specific radioactivity labeling of oligonucleotides with 3H-succinimidyl propionate. NUCLEOSIDES & NUCLEOTIDES 1999; 18:277-89. [PMID: 10067277 DOI: 10.1080/15257779908043074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
An easy and rapid method for tritium labeling of deprotected oligonucleotides is proposed. The method consists in performing the reaction of commercial 3H-succinimidyl propionate with a terminal amino group of the oligonucleotide in an organic medium. High specific radioactivity labeling can be achieved with minimal radiolysis during long term storage. The synthesis of the nonradioactive congener having an identical structure to the labeled compound is also described.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Ledoan
- Laboratoire de Biochimie des Transports Cellulaires, CNRS ERS 571, Université de Paris Sud, Orsay, France.
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Crooke ST. An overview of progress in antisense therapeutics. ANTISENSE & NUCLEIC ACID DRUG DEVELOPMENT 1998; 8:115-22. [PMID: 9593049 DOI: 10.1089/oli.1.1998.8.115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- S T Crooke
- Isis Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Carlsbad, CA 92008, USA
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Crooke ST. Progress in antisense therapeutics discovery and development. CIBA FOUNDATION SYMPOSIUM 1998; 209:158-64; discussion 164-8. [PMID: 9383575 DOI: 10.1002/9780470515396.ch12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Progress in the discovery and development of antisense therapeutics continues at a rapid pace. Detailed understanding of the pharmacokinetic, toxicological and pharmacological properties of phosphorothioate oligonucleotides is now available. Further, an ever-increasing body of information is available about new and improved chemical classes of antisense drugs that are progressing toward clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- S T Crooke
- Isis Pharmaceuticals Inc., Carlsbad Research Center, CA 92008, USA
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Diasio RB, Zhang R. Pharmacology of therapeutic oligonucleotides. ANTISENSE & NUCLEIC ACID DRUG DEVELOPMENT 1997; 7:239-43. [PMID: 9212918 DOI: 10.1089/oli.1.1997.7.239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- R B Diasio
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology University of Alabama at Birmingham 35294, USA
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Delong R, Stephenson K, Loftus T, Fisher M, Alahari S, Nolting A, Juliano RL. Characterization of complexes of oligonucleotides with polyamidoamine starburst dendrimers and effects on intracellular delivery. J Pharm Sci 1997; 86:762-4. [PMID: 9188063 DOI: 10.1021/js960409f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
This study evaluates polyamidoamine PAMAM "starburst" dendrimers (generation 3, Mr 6909) as a potential delivery vehicle for oligonucleotides. Complexes between dendrimer and phosphorothioate oligonucleotides were observed by agarose gel electrophoresis and were positive, negative, or neutral in charge depending on stoichiometry. Complexes were stable in 50% serum to variations in pH (3, 5, and 10) and ionic strength (0-500 mM). Ultrafiltration and gel filtration characterization indicated that the dendrimer:oligonucleotide complexes were primarily < 100 kD, although some larger complexes were formed at oligonucleotide excess. Use of dendrimers resulted in a 50-fold enhancement in cell uptake of oligonucleotide as determined by flow cytometry, and enhanced cytosolic and nuclear availability, as shown by confocal microscopy. These data support the further evaluation of dendrimers for oligonucleotide delivery in cell culture and in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Delong
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill 27599, USA
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Gray GD, Basu S, Wickstrom E. Transformed and immortalized cellular uptake of oligodeoxynucleoside phosphorothioates, 3'-alkylamino oligodeoxynucleotides, 2'-O-methyl oligoribonucleotides, oligodeoxynucleoside methylphosphonates, and peptide nucleic acids. Biochem Pharmacol 1997; 53:1465-76. [PMID: 9260874 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-2952(97)82440-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Direct quantitative comparisons of cellular uptake across a wide variety of analogs and cell types are necessary for the design of oligonucleotide diagnostic and therapeutic applications. This work reports quantitative cellular uptake and nuclear localization of [14C]oligodeoxynucleoside phosphorothioates (PS), 3'-alkylamino oligodeoxynucleoside phosphodiesters (PO-NH2), 2'-O-methyl oligoribonucleoside phosphodiesters (2OM), peptide nucleic acids (PNA), and oligodeoxynucleoside methylphosphonates (MP) in several transformed or immortalized cell lines. All analogs demonstrated active cellular uptake in that intracellular concentrations greatly exceeded the extracellular 1 microM concentration within 1-3 hr. However, by 9-24 hr, cellular accumulations of PS exceeded those of PO-NH2 and 2OM by 3- to 5-fold, PNA by 6- to 7-fold, and MP by 8- to 10-fold. Similar results were observed in two transformed cell lines, HL-60 leukocytes and H-ras transformed fibroblasts, using three different heterogeneous sequences. H-ras and IGF-1R transformed fibroblasts had a 2- to 5-fold higher uptake of all analogs than non-transformed immortalized fibroblasts. Nuclear levels of the PO-NH2, PS, and MP analogs were approximately 25% of total cellular uptake, while nuclear percentages of 2OM and PNA were less than 20%, suggesting some differences in nuclear localization among the analogs. These observations provide a direct quantitative comparison of cellular uptake as a function of oligonucleotide modification, and imply that transformation enhances cellular uptake. From the perspective of therapy and diagnosis, clear trade-offs were apparent between efficiency of uptake on the one hand, and nuclease resistance and hybridization strength on the other.
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Affiliation(s)
- G D Gray
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology and Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107, U.S.A
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Nolting A, DeLong RK, Fisher MH, Wickstrom E, Pollack GM, Juliano RL, Brouwer KL. Hepatic distribution and clearance of antisense oligonucleotides in the isolated perfused rat liver. Pharm Res 1997; 14:516-21. [PMID: 9144742 DOI: 10.1023/a:1012116003706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE This study was conducted to investigate the impact of backbone modifications on the hepatobiliary disposition of oligonucleotides. METHODS The disposition of backbone-modified antisense oligonucleotides [phosphorothioate (PS) and methylphosphonate (MP)] of the same base-length and sequence (5'-TAC-GCC-AAC-AGC-TCC-3'), complementary to the codon 12 activating mutation of Ki-ras, was investigated in the isolated perfused rat liver. Livers were perfused for 2 hr: perfusate and bile concentrations were analyzed by HPLC. Hepatocellular distribution was examined by measuring the amount of radiolabeled PS oligonucleotide associated with hepatocytes and Kupffer cells. Protein binding of the PS and MP oligonucleotides was determined in rat serum by ultrafiltration. RESULTS MP oligonucleotide perfusate concentrations remained constant during the 2-hour perfusion. In contrast, PS oligonucleotide was eliminated slowly by the isolated perfused liver [CI = 1.05 +/- 0.21 mL/min; extraction ratio = 0.06 +/- 0.01]. Uptake of PS oligonucleotide by Kupffer cells appeared to exceed uptake by hepatocytes, based on standard cell separation techniques as well as confocal microscopy. The degree of protein binding in rat serum was greater for the PS oligonucleotide (79.9 +/- 2.2%) than for the MP oligonucleotide (53.0 +/- 4.7%). CONCLUSIONS Backbone modifications significantly-influence the hepatic clearance of oligonucleotides. Uncharged MP oligonucleotides are not extracted by the isolated perfused rat liver, whereas the charged PS oligonucleotide is processed more readily.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Nolting
- Division of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill 27599, USA
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DeLong RK, Nolting A, Fisher M, Chen Q, Wickstrom E, Kligshteyn M, Demirdji S, Caruthers M, Juliano RL. Comparative pharmacokinetics, tissue distribution, and tumor accumulation of phosphorothioate, phosphorodithioate, and methylphosphonate oligonucleotides in nude mice. ANTISENSE & NUCLEIC ACID DRUG DEVELOPMENT 1997; 7:71-7. [PMID: 9149842 DOI: 10.1089/oli.1.1997.7.71] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The goals of this study were to systematically compare the pharmacokinetics and tissue distribution of phosphorothioate (PS), methylphosphonate (MP), and phosphorodithioate (PS2) oligonucleotide analogs; 15-mers of sequence d-TAC GCC AAC AGC TCC (5'-3') complementary to the AUG region of K-ras were radiolabeled with carbon-14. Oligomers were administered as a single dose in the tail vein of nude mice harboring a K-ras-dependent human pancreatic tumor (CFPAC1). The kinetics of PS, PS2, and MP oligomer availability in the bloodstream was followed. Concentration versus time profiles for all oligomers were biphasic, indicative of a two-compartment model. A rapid distribution phase with t1/2 alpha values of 1 minute or less and an elimination phase with average t1/2 beta values of 24-35 minutes were observed. Volumes of distribution (Vd) were 3.2, 4.8, and 6.3 ml for PS2, MP, and PS, respectively, in comparison to 3.6 ml for sucrose, a fluid-phase marker. Relative tissue drug levels obtained at 1 and 24 hours after administration were kidney > liver > spleen > tumor > muscle. Total kidney and liver oligonucleotide accumulation was approximately 7%-15% of the initial dose, with tumor accumulating 2%-3%. Intact compound was recovered from all tissues, including tumor, as assessed by high-pressure reversed-phase HPLC coupled to radiometric detection. Integrity of the oligonucleotides ranged from 73% in blood to 43%-46% in kidney and liver. Kidney and liver appear to be the primary sites of metabolism. These results demonstrate widespread tissue availability of these compounds and suggest their development as potential antitumor agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- R K DeLong
- Department of Pharmacology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill 27599, USA
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Crooke ST. Advances in understanding the pharmacological properties of antisense oligonucleotides. ADVANCES IN PHARMACOLOGY (SAN DIEGO, CALIF.) 1997; 40:1-49. [PMID: 9217922 DOI: 10.1016/s1054-3589(08)60136-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- S T Crooke
- Isis Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Carlsbad, California 92008, USA
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DeLong RK. Thin Layer Chromatography of Radiolabeled Oligonucleotide Analogues: A Rapid and Sensitive Purity Assay. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1996. [DOI: 10.1080/07328319608002442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Cho MJ, Juliano R. Macromolecular versus small-molecule therapeutics: drug discovery, development and clinical considerations. Trends Biotechnol 1996; 14:153-8. [PMID: 8645449 DOI: 10.1016/0167-7799(96)10024-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Recent advances in biomedical science in general, and molecular biology in particular, have provided a greater understanding of pathogenesis at the molecular and (sub)cellular level. In turn, this has stimulated the development of macromolecular, mechanism-based therapeutic agents, ranging from recombinant proteins, to oligonucleotides, to genes/gene fragments. The factors essential for the successful development of this new class of therapeutic agents are not necessarily the same as those for the development of conventional small organic molecules. This review mentions several issues relating to the development of macromolecular drugs, and emphasizes the key issue of drug transport and delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- M J Cho
- School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill 27599, USA
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Prevention of Tumor Formation in a Mouse Model of Burkitt’s Lymphoma by 6 Weeks of Treatment with Anti-c-myc DNA Phosphorothioate. Mol Med 1995. [DOI: 10.1007/bf03401605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022] Open
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