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Melcher D, Alaberkyan A, Anastasaki C, Liu X, Deodato M, Marsicano G, Almeida D. An early effect of the parafoveal preview on post-saccadic processing of English words. Atten Percept Psychophys 2024:10.3758/s13414-024-02916-4. [PMID: 38956003 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-024-02916-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/05/2024] [Indexed: 07/04/2024]
Abstract
A key aspect of efficient visual processing is to use current and previous information to make predictions about what we will see next. In natural viewing, and when looking at words, there is typically an indication of forthcoming visual information from extrafoveal areas of the visual field before we make an eye movement to an object or word of interest. This "preview effect" has been studied for many years in the word reading literature and, more recently, in object perception. Here, we integrated methods from word recognition and object perception to investigate the timing of the preview on neural measures of word recognition. Through a combined use of EEG and eye-tracking, a group of multilingual participants took part in a gaze-contingent, single-shot saccade experiment in which words appeared in their parafoveal visual field. In valid preview trials, the same word was presented during the preview and after the saccade, while in the invalid condition, the saccade target was a number string that turned into a word during the saccade. As hypothesized, the valid preview greatly reduced the fixation-related evoked response. Interestingly, multivariate decoding analyses revealed much earlier preview effects than previously reported for words, and individual decoding performance correlated with participant reading scores. These results demonstrate that a parafoveal preview can influence relatively early aspects of post-saccadic word processing and help to resolve some discrepancies between the word and object literatures.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Melcher
- Psychology Program, Division of Science, New York University Abu Dhabi, PO Box 129188, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates.
- Center for Brain and Health, NYUAD Research Institute, New York University Abu Dhabi, PO Box 129188, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates.
| | - Ani Alaberkyan
- Psychology Program, Division of Science, New York University Abu Dhabi, PO Box 129188, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
| | - Chrysi Anastasaki
- Psychology Program, Division of Science, New York University Abu Dhabi, PO Box 129188, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
| | - Xiaoyi Liu
- Psychology Program, Division of Science, New York University Abu Dhabi, PO Box 129188, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
- Department of Psychology, Princeton University, Washington Rd, Princeton, NJ, 08540, USA
| | - Michele Deodato
- Psychology Program, Division of Science, New York University Abu Dhabi, PO Box 129188, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
- Center for Brain and Health, NYUAD Research Institute, New York University Abu Dhabi, PO Box 129188, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
| | - Gianluca Marsicano
- Department of Psychology, University of Bologna, Viale Berti Pichat 5, 40121, Bologna, Italy
- Centre for Studies and Research in Cognitive Neuroscience, University of Bologna, Via Rasi e Spinelli 176, 47023, Cesena, Italy
| | - Diogo Almeida
- Psychology Program, Division of Science, New York University Abu Dhabi, PO Box 129188, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
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Del Campo VL, Morán JFO, Cagigal VM, Martín JM, Pagador JB, Hornero R. The use of the eye-fixation-related potential to investigate visual perception in professional domains with high attentional demand: a literature review. Neurol Sci 2024; 45:1849-1860. [PMID: 38157102 DOI: 10.1007/s10072-023-07275-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2023] [Accepted: 12/17/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Visual attention is a cognitive skill related to visual perception and neural activity, and also moderated by expertise, in time-constrained professional domains (e.g., aviation, driving, sport, surgery). However, the contribution of both perceptual and neural processes on performance has been studied separately in the literature. DEVELOPMENT We defend an integration of visual and neural signals to offer a more complete picture of the visual attention displayed by professionals of different skill levels when performing free-viewing tasks. Specifically, we propose to zoom the analysis in data related to the quiet eye and P300 component jointly, as a novel signal processing approach to evaluate professionals' visual attention. CONCLUSION This review highlights the advantages of using portable eye trackers and electroencephalogram systems altogether, as a promising technique for a better understanding of early cognitive components related to attentional processes. Altogether, the eye-fixation-related potentials method may provide a better understanding of the cognitive mechanisms employed by the participants in natural settings, revealing what visual information is of interest for participants and distinguishing the neural bases of visual attention between targets and non-targets whenever they perceive a stimulus during free viewing experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vicente Luis Del Campo
- Laboratorio de Aprendizaje y Control Motor, Facultad de Ciencias del Deporte, Universidad de Extremadura, Avda. de La Universidad, S/N, 10003, Cáceres, Spain.
| | | | - Víctor Martínez Cagigal
- Grupo de Ingeniería Biomédica, Universidad de Valladolid, E.T.S.I. Telecomunicación, Paseo Belén 15, 47011, Valladolid, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red - Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Biomedicina (CIBER-BBN), E.T.S.I. Telecomunicación, Paseo Belén 15, 47011, Valladolid, Spain
| | - Jesús Morenas Martín
- Laboratorio de Aprendizaje y Control Motor, Facultad de Ciencias del Deporte, Universidad de Extremadura, Avda. de La Universidad, S/N, 10003, Cáceres, Spain
| | - J Blas Pagador
- Centro de Cirugía de Mínima Invasión Jesús Usón, Ctra. N-521, Km. 41,8, 10071, Cáceres, Spain
| | - Roberto Hornero
- Grupo de Ingeniería Biomédica, Universidad de Valladolid, E.T.S.I. Telecomunicación, Paseo Belén 15, 47011, Valladolid, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red - Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Biomedicina (CIBER-BBN), E.T.S.I. Telecomunicación, Paseo Belén 15, 47011, Valladolid, Spain
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3
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Sun B, Wang B, Wei Z, Feng Z, Wu ZL, Yassin W, Stone WS, Lin Y, Kong XJ. Identification of diagnostic markers for ASD: a restrictive interest analysis based on EEG combined with eye tracking. Front Neurosci 2023; 17:1236637. [PMID: 37886678 PMCID: PMC10598595 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2023.1236637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2023] [Accepted: 09/12/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Electroencephalography (EEG) functional connectivity (EFC) and eye tracking (ET) have been explored as objective screening methods for autism spectrum disorder (ASD), but no study has yet evaluated restricted and repetitive behavior (RRBs) simultaneously to infer early ASD diagnosis. Typically developing (TD) children (n = 27) and ASD (n = 32), age- and sex-matched, were evaluated with EFC and ET simultaneously, using the restricted interest stimulus paradigm. Network-based machine learning prediction (NBS-predict) was used to identify ASD. Correlations between EFC, ET, and Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule-Second Edition (ADOS-2) were performed. The Area Under the Curve (AUC) of receiver-operating characteristics (ROC) was measured to evaluate the predictive performance. Under high restrictive interest stimuli (HRIS), ASD children have significantly higher α band connectivity and significantly more total fixation time (TFT)/pupil enlargement of ET relative to TD children (p = 0.04299). These biomarkers were not only significantly positively correlated with each other (R = 0.716, p = 8.26e-4), but also with ADOS total scores (R = 0.749, p = 34e-4) and RRBs sub-score (R = 0.770, p = 1.87e-4) for EFC (R = 0.641, p = 0.0148) for TFT. The accuracy of NBS-predict in identifying ASD was 63.4%. ROC curve demonstrated TFT with 91 and 90% sensitivity, and 78.7% and 77.4% specificity for ADOS total and RRB sub-scores, respectively. Simultaneous EFC and ET evaluation in ASD is highly correlated with RRB symptoms measured by ADOS-2. NBS-predict of EFC offered a direct prediction of ASD. The use of both EFC and ET improve early ASD diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Binbin Sun
- Shenzhen Maternity and Child Healthcare Hospital, Southern Medical University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Bryan Wang
- Martinos Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
- Department of English and Creative Writing, Brandeis University, Waltham, MA, United States
| | - Zhen Wei
- Shenzhen Maternity and Child Healthcare Hospital, Southern Medical University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Zhe Feng
- Shenzhen Maternity and Child Healthcare Hospital, Southern Medical University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Zhi-Liu Wu
- Shenzhen Maternity and Child Healthcare Hospital, Southern Medical University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Walid Yassin
- Martinos Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
- McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Belmont, MA, United States
- Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - William S. Stone
- Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Yan Lin
- Shenzhen Maternity and Child Healthcare Hospital, Southern Medical University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Xue-Jun Kong
- Martinos Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
- Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
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Wascher E, Alyan E, Karthaus M, Getzmann S, Arnau S, Reiser JE. Tracking drivers' minds: Continuous evaluation of mental load and cognitive processing in a realistic driving simulator scenario by means of the EEG. Heliyon 2023; 9:e17904. [PMID: 37539180 PMCID: PMC10395282 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e17904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2023] [Revised: 06/10/2023] [Accepted: 06/30/2023] [Indexed: 08/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Driving safety strongly depends on the driver's mental states and attention to the driving situation. Previous studies demonstrate a clear relationship between EEG measures and mental states, such as alertness and drowsiness, but often only map their mental state for a longer period of time. In this driving simulation study, we exploit the high temporal resolution of the EEG to capture fine-grained modulations in cognitive processes occurring before and after eye activity in the form of saccades, fixations, and eye blinks. A total of 15 subjects drove through an approximately 50-km course consisting of highway, country road, and urban passages. Based on the ratio of brain oscillatory alpha and theta activity, the total distance was classified into 10-m-long sections with low, medium, and high task loads. Blink-evoked and fixation-evoked event-related potentials, spectral perturbations, and lateralizations were analyzed as neuro-cognitive correlates of cognition and attention. Depending on EEG-based estimation of task load, these measures showed distinct patterns associated with driving behavior parameters such as speed and steering acceleration and represent a temporally highly resolved image of specific cognitive processes during driving. In future applications, combinations of these EEG measures could form the basis for driver warning systems which increase overall driving safety by considering rapid fluctuations in driver's attention and mental states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edmund Wascher
- Corresponding author. IfADo – Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors Ardeystr. 67 D-44139 Dortmund Germany.
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5
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Snell J, Yeaton J, Mirault J, Grainger J. Parallel word reading revealed by fixation-related brain potentials. Cortex 2023; 162:1-11. [PMID: 36948090 DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2023.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2021] [Revised: 02/05/2022] [Accepted: 02/13/2023] [Indexed: 02/27/2023]
Abstract
During reading, the brain is confronted with many relevant objects at once. But does lexical processing occur for multiple words simultaneously? Cognitive science has yet to answer this prominent question. Recently it has been argued that the issue warrants supplementing the field's traditional toolbox (response times, eye-tracking) with neuroscientific techniques (EEG, fMRI). Indeed, according to the OB1-reader model, upcoming words need not impact oculomotor behavior per se, but parallel processing of these words must nonetheless be reflected in neural activity. Here we combined eye-tracking with EEG, time-locking the neural window of interest to the fixation on target words in sentence reading. During these fixations, we manipulated the identity of the subsequent word so that it posed either a syntactically legal or illegal continuation of the sentence. In line with previous research, oculomotor measures were unaffected. Yet, syntax impacted brain potentials as early as 100 ms after the target fixation onset. Given the EEG literature on syntax processing, the presently observed timings suggest parallel word reading. We reckon that parallel word processing typifies reading, and that OB1-reader offers a good platform for theorizing about the reading brain.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Jonathan Mirault
- Aix-Marseille University & Centre Nationale de Recherche Scientifique, France
| | - Jonathan Grainger
- Aix-Marseille University & Centre Nationale de Recherche Scientifique, France; Institute of Language Communication and the Brain, Aix-Marseille University, France
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6
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Muraki EJ, Doyle A, Protzner AB, Pexman PM. Context matters: How do task demands modulate the recruitment of sensorimotor information during language processing? Front Hum Neurosci 2023; 16:976954. [PMID: 36733894 PMCID: PMC9886877 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2022.976954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2022] [Accepted: 12/30/2022] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Many theories of semantic representation propose that simulations of sensorimotor experience contribute to language processing. This can be seen in the body-object interaction effect (BOI; how easily the human body can interact with a word's referent). Words with high BOI ratings (e.g., ball) are processed more quickly than words with low BOI ratings (e.g., cloud) in various language tasks. This effect can be modulated by task demands. Previous research established that when asked to decide if a word is an object (entity condition), a BOI effect is observed, but when asked to decide if a word is an action (action condition), there is no BOI effect. It is unclear whether the null behavioral effect in the action condition reflects top-down modulation of task-relevant sensorimotor information or the absence of bottom-up activation of sensorimotor simulations. We investigated this question using EEG. In Experiment 1 we replicated the previous behavioral findings. In Experiment 2, 50 participants were assigned to either the entity or action conditions and responded to the same word stimuli. In both conditions we observed differences in ERP components related to the BOI effect. In the entity condition the P2 mean amplitude was significantly more positive for high compared to low BOI words. In the action condition the N400 peak latency was significantly later for high compared to low BOI words. Our findings suggest that BOI information is generated bottom-up regardless of task demands and modulated by top-down processes that recruit sensorimotor information relevant to the task decision.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emiko J. Muraki
- Department of Psychology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada,Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada,*Correspondence: Emiko J. Muraki,
| | - Alison Doyle
- Department of Psychology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada,Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Andrea B. Protzner
- Department of Psychology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada,Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Penny M. Pexman
- Department of Psychology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada,Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
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7
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Cui X, Richlan F, Zhou W. Fixation-related fMRI analysis reveals the neural basis of parafoveal processing in self-paced reading of Chinese words. Brain Struct Funct 2022; 227:2609-2621. [PMID: 35997831 DOI: 10.1007/s00429-022-02552-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2022] [Accepted: 08/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
While parafoveal word processing plays an important role in natural reading, the underlying neural mechanism remains unclear. The present study investigated the neural basis of parafoveal processing during Chinese word reading with the co-registration of eye-tracking and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) using fixation-related fMRI analysis. In the gaze-contingent boundary paradigm, preview conditions (words that are identical, orthographically similar, and unrelated to target words), pre-target word frequency and target word frequency were manipulated. When fixating the pre-target word, the identical preview condition elicited lower brain activation in the left fusiform gyrus relative to unrelated and orthographically similar preview conditions and there were significant interactions of preview condition and pre-target word frequency on brain activation of the left middle frontal gyrus, left fusiform gyrus and supplementary motor area. When fixating the target word, there was a significant main effect of preview condition on brain activation of the right fusiform gyrus and a significant interaction of preview condition and pre-target word frequency on brain activation of the left middle frontal gyrus. These results suggest that fixation-related brain activation provides immediate measures and new perspectives to understand the mechanism of parafoveal processing in self-paced reading.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaohui Cui
- Beijing Key Lab of Learning and Cognition, School of Psychology, Capital Normal University, Beijing, China.,Key Laboratory of Behavioral Science, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Fabio Richlan
- Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience and Department of Psychology, Paris-Lodron-University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Wei Zhou
- Beijing Key Lab of Learning and Cognition, School of Psychology, Capital Normal University, Beijing, China.
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8
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Review of eye diagnosis in traditional Chinese medicine: Modernization and future prospects. JOURNAL OF TRADITIONAL CHINESE MEDICAL SCIENCES 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtcms.2022.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
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9
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Pan Y, Frisson S, Jensen O. Neural evidence for lexical parafoveal processing. Nat Commun 2021; 12:5234. [PMID: 34475391 PMCID: PMC8413448 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-25571-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2021] [Accepted: 08/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
In spite of the reduced visual acuity, parafoveal information plays an important role in natural reading. However, competing models on reading disagree on whether words are previewed parafoveally at the lexical level. We find neural evidence for lexical parafoveal processing by combining a rapid invisible frequency tagging (RIFT) approach with magnetoencephalography (MEG) and eye-tracking. In a silent reading task, target words are tagged (flickered) subliminally at 60 Hz. The tagging responses measured when fixating on the pre-target word reflect parafoveal processing of the target word. We observe stronger tagging responses during pre-target fixations when followed by low compared with high lexical frequency targets. Moreover, this lexical parafoveal processing is associated with individual reading speed. Our findings suggest that reading unfolds in the fovea and parafovea simultaneously to support fluent reading.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yali Pan
- Centre for Human Brain Health, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK.
- School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK.
| | - Steven Frisson
- Centre for Human Brain Health, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
- School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - Ole Jensen
- Centre for Human Brain Health, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
- School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
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Huber-Huber C, Buonocore A, Melcher D. The extrafoveal preview paradigm as a measure of predictive, active sampling in visual perception. J Vis 2021; 21:12. [PMID: 34283203 PMCID: PMC8300052 DOI: 10.1167/jov.21.7.12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2020] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
A key feature of visual processing in humans is the use of saccadic eye movements to look around the environment. Saccades are typically used to bring relevant information, which is glimpsed with extrafoveal vision, into the high-resolution fovea for further processing. With the exception of some unusual circumstances, such as the first fixation when walking into a room, our saccades are mainly guided based on this extrafoveal preview. In contrast, the majority of experimental studies in vision science have investigated "passive" behavioral and neural responses to suddenly appearing and often temporally or spatially unpredictable stimuli. As reviewed here, a growing number of studies have investigated visual processing of objects under more natural viewing conditions in which observers move their eyes to a stationary stimulus, visible previously in extrafoveal vision, during each trial. These studies demonstrate that the extrafoveal preview has a profound influence on visual processing of objects, both for behavior and neural activity. Starting from the preview effect in reading research we follow subsequent developments in vision research more generally and finally argue that taking such evidence seriously leads to a reconceptualization of the nature of human visual perception that incorporates the strong influence of prediction and action on sensory processing. We review theoretical perspectives on visual perception under naturalistic viewing conditions, including theories of active vision, active sensing, and sampling. Although the extrafoveal preview paradigm has already provided useful information about the timing of, and potential mechanisms for, the close interaction of the oculomotor and visual systems while reading and in natural scenes, the findings thus far also raise many new questions for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Huber-Huber
- Radboud University, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, The Netherlands
- CIMeC, University of Trento, Italy
| | - Antimo Buonocore
- Werner Reichardt Centre for Integrative Neuroscience, Tübingen University, Tübingen, BW, Germany
- Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, Tübingen University, Tübingen, BW, Germany
| | - David Melcher
- CIMeC, University of Trento, Italy
- Division of Science, New York University Abu Dhabi, UAE
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Time-course change in attentional resource allocation during a spot-the-difference task: investigation using an eye fixation-related brain potential. CURRENT PSYCHOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s12144-021-01623-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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12
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Eye Fixation-Related Potentials during Visual Search on Acquaintance and Newly-Learned Faces. Brain Sci 2021; 11:brainsci11020218. [PMID: 33579017 PMCID: PMC7916779 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci11020218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2021] [Revised: 02/03/2021] [Accepted: 02/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Searching familiar faces in the crowd may involve stimulus-driven attention by emotional significance, together with goal-directed attention due to task-relevant needs. The present study investigated the effect of familiarity on attentional processes by exploring eye fixation-related potentials (EFRPs) and eye gazes when humans searched for, among other distracting faces, either an acquaintance’s face or a newly-learned face. Task performance and gaze behavior were indistinguishable for identifying either faces. However, from the EFRP analysis, after a P300 component for successful search of target faces, we found greater deflections of right parietal late positive potentials in response to newly-learned faces than acquaintance’s faces, indicating more involvement of goal-directed attention in processing newly-learned faces. In addition, we found greater occipital negativity elicited by acquaintance’s faces, reflecting emotional responses to significant stimuli. These results may suggest that finding a familiar face in the crowd would involve lower goal-directed attention and elicit more emotional responses.
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Dimigen O, Ehinger BV. Regression-based analysis of combined EEG and eye-tracking data: Theory and applications. J Vis 2021; 21:3. [PMID: 33410892 PMCID: PMC7804566 DOI: 10.1167/jov.21.1.3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2019] [Accepted: 08/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Fixation-related potentials (FRPs), neural responses aligned to the end of saccades, are a promising tool for studying the dynamics of attention and cognition under natural viewing conditions. In the past, four methodological problems have complicated the analysis of such combined eye-tracking/electroencephalogram experiments: (1) the synchronization of data streams, (2) the removal of ocular artifacts, (3) the condition-specific temporal overlap between the brain responses evoked by consecutive fixations, and (4) the fact that numerous low-level stimulus and saccade properties also influence the postsaccadic neural responses. Although effective solutions exist for the first two problems, the latter two are only beginning to be addressed. In the current paper, we present and review a unified regression-based framework for FRP analysis that allows us to deconvolve overlapping potentials while also controlling for both linear and nonlinear confounds on the FRP waveform. An open software implementation is provided for all procedures. We then demonstrate the advantages of this proposed (non)linear deconvolution modeling approach for data from three commonly studied paradigms: face perception, scene viewing, and reading. First, for a traditional event-related potential (ERP) face recognition experiment, we show how this technique can separate stimulus ERPs from overlapping muscle and brain potentials produced by small (micro)saccades on the face. Second, in natural scene viewing, we model and isolate multiple nonlinear effects of saccade parameters on the FRP. Finally, for a natural sentence reading experiment using the boundary paradigm, we show how it is possible to study the neural correlates of parafoveal preview after removing spurious overlap effects caused by the associated difference in average fixation time. Our results suggest a principal way of measuring reliable eye movement-related brain activity during natural vision.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olaf Dimigen
- Department of Psychology, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Benedikt V Ehinger
- Institute of Cognitive Science, Universität Osnabrück, Osnabrück, Germany
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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14
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Tan G, Xu K, Liu J, Liu H. A Trend on Autism Spectrum Disorder Research: Eye Tracking-EEG Correlative Analytics. IEEE Trans Cogn Dev Syst 2021. [DOI: 10.1109/tcds.2021.3102646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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15
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Wobrock D, Finke A, Schack T, Ritter H. Using Fixation-Related Potentials for Inspecting Natural Interactions. Front Hum Neurosci 2020; 14:579505. [PMID: 33250729 PMCID: PMC7674802 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2020.579505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2020] [Accepted: 09/24/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Brain-Computer Interfaces (BCI) offer unique windows into the cognitive processes underlying human-machine interaction. Identifying and analyzing the appropriate brain activity to have access to such windows is often difficult due to technical or psycho-physiological constraints. Indeed, studying interactions through this approach frequently requires adapting them to accommodate specific BCI-related paradigms which change the functioning of their interface on both the human-side and the machine-side. The combined examination of Electroencephalography and Eyetracking recordings, mainly by means of studying Fixation-Related Potentials, can help to circumvent the necessity for these adaptations by determining interaction-relevant moments during natural manipulation. In this contribution, we examine how properties contained within the bi-modal recordings can be used to assess valuable information about the interaction. Practically, three properties are studied which can be obtained solely through data obtained from analysis of the recorded biosignals. Namely, these properties consist of relative gaze metrics, being abstractions of the gaze patterns, the amplitude variations in the early brain activity potentials and the brain activity frequency band differences between fixations. Through their observation, information about three different aspects of the explored interface are obtained. Respectively, the properties provide insights about general perceived task difficulty, locate moments of higher attentional effort and discriminate between moments of exploration and moments of active interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dennis Wobrock
- Center of Cognitive Interaction Technology CITEC, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany.,Neuroinformatics Group, Faculty of Technology, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Andrea Finke
- Center of Cognitive Interaction Technology CITEC, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany.,Neuroinformatics Group, Faculty of Technology, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Thomas Schack
- Center of Cognitive Interaction Technology CITEC, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany.,Neurocognition and Action Group, Faculty of Psychology and Sports Sciences, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Helge Ritter
- Center of Cognitive Interaction Technology CITEC, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany.,Neuroinformatics Group, Faculty of Technology, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany
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16
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Dias EC, Sheridan H, Martínez A, Sehatpour P, Silipo G, Rohrig S, Hochman A, Butler PD, Hoptman MJ, Revheim N, Javitt DC. Neurophysiological, Oculomotor, and Computational Modeling of Impaired Reading Ability in Schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 2020; 47:97-107. [PMID: 32851415 PMCID: PMC7825085 DOI: 10.1093/schbul/sbaa107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Schizophrenia (Sz) is associated with deficits in fluent reading ability that compromise functional outcomes. Here, we utilize a combined eye-tracking, neurophysiological, and computational modeling approach to analyze underlying visual and oculomotor processes. Subjects included 26 Sz patients (SzP) and 26 healthy controls. Eye-tracking and electroencephalography data were acquired continuously during the reading of passages from the Gray Oral Reading Tests reading battery, permitting between-group evaluation of both oculomotor activity and fixation-related potentials (FRP). Schizophrenia patients showed a marked increase in time required per word (d = 1.3, P < .0001), reflecting both a moderate increase in fixation duration (d = .7, P = .026) and a large increase in the total saccade number (d = 1.6, P < .0001). Simulation models that incorporated alterations in both lower-level visual and oculomotor function as well as higher-level lexical processing performed better than models that assumed either deficit-type alone. In neurophysiological analyses, amplitude of the fixation-related P1 potential (P1f) was significantly reduced in SzP (d = .66, P = .013), reflecting reduced phase reset of ongoing theta-alpha band activity (d = .74, P = .019). In turn, P1f deficits significantly predicted increased saccade number both across groups (P = .017) and within SzP alone (P = .042). Computational and neurophysiological methods provide increasingly important approaches for investigating sensory contributions to impaired cognition during naturalistic processing in Sz. Here, we demonstrate deficits in reading rate that reflect both sensory/oculomotor- and semantic-level impairments and that manifest, respectively, as alterations in saccade number and fixation duration. Impaired P1f generation reflects impaired fixation-related reset of ongoing brain rhythms and suggests inefficient information processing within the early visual system as a basis for oculomotor dyscontrol during fluent reading in Sz.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisa C Dias
- Program in Cognitive Neuroscience and Schizophrenia, Schizophrenia Research Division, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY,Department of Psychiatry, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY,To whom correspondence should be addressed; 140 Old Orangeburg Rd, Building 35, Orangeburg, NY, 10962, USA; tel: 845-398-6541, fax: 845-398-6545,
| | - Heather Sheridan
- Department of Psychology, University at Albany, State University of New York, Albany, NY
| | - Antígona Martínez
- Program in Cognitive Neuroscience and Schizophrenia, Schizophrenia Research Division, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY,Division of Experimental Therapeutics, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY
| | - Pejman Sehatpour
- Program in Cognitive Neuroscience and Schizophrenia, Schizophrenia Research Division, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY,Division of Experimental Therapeutics, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY
| | - Gail Silipo
- Program in Cognitive Neuroscience and Schizophrenia, Schizophrenia Research Division, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY
| | - Stephanie Rohrig
- Program in Cognitive Neuroscience and Schizophrenia, Schizophrenia Research Division, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY
| | - Ayelet Hochman
- Program in Cognitive Neuroscience and Schizophrenia, Schizophrenia Research Division, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY
| | - Pamela D Butler
- Program in Cognitive Neuroscience and Schizophrenia, Schizophrenia Research Division, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY,Department of Psychiatry, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY
| | - Matthew J Hoptman
- Program in Cognitive Neuroscience and Schizophrenia, Schizophrenia Research Division, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY,Department of Psychiatry, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY
| | - Nadine Revheim
- Program in Cognitive Neuroscience and Schizophrenia, Schizophrenia Research Division, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY
| | - Daniel C Javitt
- Program in Cognitive Neuroscience and Schizophrenia, Schizophrenia Research Division, Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY,Division of Experimental Therapeutics, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY
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17
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Savage SW, Potter DD, Tatler BW. The effects of cognitive distraction on behavioural, oculomotor and electrophysiological metrics during a driving hazard perception task. ACCIDENT; ANALYSIS AND PREVENTION 2020; 138:105469. [PMID: 32113007 DOI: 10.1016/j.aap.2020.105469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2019] [Revised: 01/10/2020] [Accepted: 02/10/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Previous research has demonstrated that the distraction caused by holding a mobile telephone conversation is not limited to the period of the actual conversation (Haigney, 1995; Redelmeier & Tibshirani, 1997; Savage et al., 2013). In a prior study we identified potential eye movement and EEG markers of cognitive distraction during driving hazard perception. However the extent to which these markers are affected by the demands of the hazard perception task are unclear. Therefore in the current study we assessed the effects of secondary cognitive task demand on eye movement and EEG metrics separately for periods prior to, during and after the hazard was visible. We found that when no hazard was present (prior and post hazard windows), distraction resulted in changes to various elements of saccadic eye movements. However, when the target was present, distraction did not affect eye movements. We have previously found evidence that distraction resulted in an overall decrease in theta band output at occipital sites of the brain. This was interpreted as evidence that distraction results in a reduction in visual processing. The current study confirmed this by examining the effects of distraction on the lambda response component of subjects eye fixation related potentials (EFRPs). Furthermore, we demonstrated that although detections of hazards were not affected by distraction, both eye movement and EEG metrics prior to the onset of the hazard were sensitive to changes in cognitive workload. This suggests that changes to specific aspects of the saccadic eye movement system could act as unobtrusive markers of distraction even prior to a breakdown in driving performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven W Savage
- Schepens Eye Research Institute, Massachusetts Eye and Ear, Harvard Medical School, 20 Staniford Street, 02114, Boston, MA, USA.
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18
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Auerbach-Asch CR, Bein O, Deouell LY. Face Selective Neural Activity: Comparisons Between Fixed and Free Viewing. Brain Topogr 2020; 33:336-354. [PMID: 32236786 DOI: 10.1007/s10548-020-00764-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2019] [Accepted: 03/14/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Event Related Potentials (ERPs) are widely used to study category-selective EEG responses to visual stimuli, such as the face-selective N170 component. Typically, this is done by flashing stimuli at the point of static gaze fixation. While allowing for good experimental control, these paradigms ignore the dynamic role of eye-movements in natural vision. Fixation-related potentials (FRPs), obtained using simultaneous EEG and eye-tracking, overcome this limitation. Various studies have used FRPs to study processes such as lexical processing, target detection and attention allocation. The goal of this study was to carefully compare face-sensitive activity time-locked to an abrupt stimulus onset at fixation, with that time-locked to a self-generated fixation on a stimulus. Twelve participants participated in three experimental conditions: Free-viewing (FRPs), Cued-viewing (FRPs) and Control (ERPs). We used a multiple regression approach to disentangle overlapping activity components. Our results show that the N170 face-effect is evident for the first fixation on a stimulus, whether it follows a self-generated saccade or stimulus appearance at fixation point. The N170 face-effect has similar topography across viewing conditions, but there were major differences within each stimulus category. We ascribe these differences to an overlap of the fixation-related lambda response and the N170. We tested the plausibility of this account using dipole simulations. Finally, the N170 exhibits category-specific adaptation in free viewing. This study establishes the comparability of the free-viewing N170 face-effect with the classic event-related effect, while highlighting the importance of accounting for eye-movement related effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmel R Auerbach-Asch
- The Edmond and Lily Safra Center for Brain Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Edmond J. Safra Campus, Givat-Ram, 91904, Jerusalem, Israel.
| | - Oded Bein
- The Department of Psychology, New York University, 6 Washington Pl, New York, NY, 10003, USA
| | - Leon Y Deouell
- The Edmond and Lily Safra Center for Brain Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Edmond J. Safra Campus, Givat-Ram, 91904, Jerusalem, Israel
- The Department of Psychology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Mount Scopus, 91905, Jerusalem, Israel
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19
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Iturrate I, Chavarriaga R, Millán JDR. General principles of machine learning for brain-computer interfacing. HANDBOOK OF CLINICAL NEUROLOGY 2020; 168:311-328. [PMID: 32164862 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-444-63934-9.00023-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) are systems that translate brain activity patterns into commands that can be executed by an artificial device. This enables the possibility of controlling devices such as a prosthetic arm or exoskeleton, a wheelchair, typewriting applications, or games directly by modulating our brain activity. For this purpose, BCI systems rely on signal processing and machine learning algorithms to decode the brain activity. This chapter provides an overview of the main steps required to do such a process, including signal preprocessing, feature extraction and selection, and decoding. Given the large amount of possible methods that can be used for these processes, a comprehensive review of them is beyond the scope of this chapter, and it is focused instead on the general principles that should be taken into account, as well as discussing good practices on how these methods should be applied and evaluated for proper design of reliable BCI systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iñaki Iturrate
- Center for Neuroprosthetics, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Ricardo Chavarriaga
- Center for Neuroprosthetics, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Geneva, Switzerland; Institute of Applied Information Technology (InIT), Zurich University of Applied Sciences ZHAW, Winterthur, Switzerland.
| | - José Del R Millán
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, United States; Department of Neurology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, United States
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20
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Mirault J, Yeaton J, Broqua F, Dufau S, Holcomb PJ, Grainger J. Parafoveal-on-foveal repetition effects in sentence reading: A co-registered eye-tracking and electroencephalogram study. Psychophysiology 2020; 57:e13553. [PMID: 32091627 PMCID: PMC7507185 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.13553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2019] [Revised: 01/27/2020] [Accepted: 02/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
When reading, can the next word in the sentence (word n + 1) influence how you read the word you are currently looking at (word n)? Serial models of sentence reading state that this generally should not be the case, whereas parallel models predict that this should be the case. Here we focus on perhaps the simplest and the strongest Parafoveal‐on‐Foveal (PoF) manipulation: word n + 1 is either the same as word n or a different word. Participants read sentences for comprehension and when their eyes left word n, the repeated or unrelated word at position n + 1 was swapped for a word that provided a syntactically correct continuation of the sentence. We recorded electroencephalogram and eye‐movements, and time‐locked the analysis of fixation‐related potentials (FRPs) to fixation of word n. We found robust PoF repetition effects on gaze durations on word n, and also on the initial landing position on word n. Most important is that we also observed significant effects in FRPs, reaching significance at 260 ms post‐fixation of word n. Repetition of the target word n at position n + 1 caused a widely distributed reduced negativity in the FRPs. Given the timing of this effect, we argue that it is driven by orthographic processing of word n + 1, while readers were still looking at word n, plus the spatial integration of orthographic information extracted from these two words in parallel. A hotly debated issue in reading research concerns the serial versus parallel nature of word identification processes. Evidence in favor of parallel processing has been criticized because it has often been obtained with artificial reading paradigms. Here we show that fixation‐related potentials elicited by a target word embedded in a normal sentence are impacted by the nature of the word immediately to the right of the fixated target word (n), and that this impact became significant 260 ms after fixation of word n. This is in line with parallel orthographic processing across adjacent words during sentence reading.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Mirault
- Laboratoire de Psychologie Cognitive, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Aix-Marseille University, Marseille, France
| | - Jeremy Yeaton
- Laboratoire de Psychologie Cognitive, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Aix-Marseille University, Marseille, France
| | - Fanny Broqua
- Laboratoire de Psychologie Cognitive, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Aix-Marseille University, Marseille, France
| | - Stéphane Dufau
- Laboratoire de Psychologie Cognitive, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Aix-Marseille University, Marseille, France.,Institute for Language, Aix-Marseille University, Aix-en-Provence, France
| | - Phillip J Holcomb
- Department of Psychology, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Jonathan Grainger
- Laboratoire de Psychologie Cognitive, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Aix-Marseille University, Marseille, France.,Institute for Language, Aix-Marseille University, Aix-en-Provence, France
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21
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Degno F, Liversedge SP. Eye Movements and Fixation-Related Potentials in Reading: A Review. Vision (Basel) 2020; 4:E11. [PMID: 32028566 PMCID: PMC7157570 DOI: 10.3390/vision4010011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2019] [Revised: 01/27/2020] [Accepted: 01/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The present review is addressed to researchers in the field of reading and psycholinguistics who are both familiar with and new to co-registration research of eye movements (EMs) and fixation related-potentials (FRPs) in reading. At the outset, we consider a conundrum relating to timing discrepancies between EM and event related potential (ERP) effects. We then consider the extent to which the co-registration approach might allow us to overcome this and thereby discriminate between formal theoretical and computational accounts of reading. We then describe three phases of co-registration research before evaluating the existing body of such research in reading. The current, ongoing phase of co-registration research is presented in comprehensive tables which provide a detailed summary of the existing findings. The thorough appraisal of the published studies allows us to engage with issues such as the reliability of FRP components as correlates of cognitive processing in reading and the advantages of analysing both data streams (i.e., EMs and FRPs) simultaneously relative to each alone, as well as the current, and limited, understanding of the relationship between EM and FRP measures. Finally, we consider future directions and in particular the potential of analytical methods involving deconvolution and the potential of measurement of brain oscillatory activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federica Degno
- School of Psychology, University of Central Lancashire, Marsh Ln, Preston PR1 2HE, UK;
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22
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Abstract
Eye movements are an important index of the neural functions of visual information processing, decision making, visuomotor coordination, sports performance, and so forth. However, the available optical tracking methods are impractical in many situations, such as the wearing of eyeglasses or the presence of ophthalmic disorders, and this can be overcome by accurate recording of eye movements by electrooculography (EOG). In this study we recorded eye movements by EOG simultaneously with high-density electroencephalogram (EEG) recording using a 128-channel EGI electrode net at a 500-Hz sampling rate, including appropriate facial electrodes. The participants made eye movements over a calibration target consisting of a 5×5 grid of stimulus targets. The results showed that the EOG methodology allowed accurate analysis of the amplitude and direction of the fixation locations and saccadic dynamics with a temporal resolution of 500 Hz, under both cued and uncued analysis regimes. Blink responses could be identified separately and were shown to have a more complex source derivation than has previously been recognized. The results also showed that the EOG signals recorded through the EEG net can achieve results as accurate as typical optical eye-tracking devices, and also allow for simultaneous assessment of neural activity during all types of eye movements. Moreover, the EOG method effectively avoids the technical difficulties related to eye-tracker positioning and the synchronization between EEG and eye movements. We showed that simultaneous EOG/EEG recording is a convenient means of measuring eye movements, with an accuracy comparable to that of many specialized eye-tracking systems.
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23
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Tyson-Carr J, Soto V, Kokmotou K, Roberts H, Fallon N, Byrne A, Giesbrecht T, Stancak A. Neural underpinnings of value-guided choice during auction tasks: An eye-fixation related potentials study. Neuroimage 2020; 204:116213. [PMID: 31542511 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.116213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2019] [Revised: 09/14/2019] [Accepted: 09/18/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Values are attributed to goods during free viewing of objects which entails multi- and trans-saccadic cognitive processes. Using electroencephalographic eye-fixation related potentials, the present study investigated how neural signals related to value-guided choice evolved over time when viewing household and office products during an auction task. Participants completed a Becker-DeGroot-Marschak auction task whereby half of the stimuli were presented in either a free or forced bid protocol to obtain willingness-to-pay. Stimuli were assigned to three value categories of low, medium and high value based on subjective willingness-to-pay. Eye fixations were organised into five 800 ms time-bins spanning the objects total viewing time. Independent component analysis was applied to eye-fixation related potentials. One independent component (IC) was found to represent fixations for high value products with increased activation over the left parietal region of the scalp. An IC with a spatial maximum over a fronto-central region of the scalp coded the intermediate values. Finally, one IC displaying activity that extends over the right frontal scalp region responded to intermediate- and low-value items. Each of these components responded early on during viewing an object and remained active over the entire viewing period, both during free and forced bid trials. Results suggest that the subjective value of goods are encoded using sets of brain activation patterns which are tuned to respond uniquely to either low, medium, or high values. Data indicates that the right frontal region of the brain responds to low and the left frontal region to high values. Values of goods are determined at an early point in the decision making process and carried for the duration of the decision period via trans-saccadic processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Tyson-Carr
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK.
| | - Vicente Soto
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK; Center for Social and Cognitive Neuroscience (CSCN), School of Psychology, Universidad Adolfo Ibáñez, Santiago, Chile
| | - Katerina Kokmotou
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Hannah Roberts
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Nicholas Fallon
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Adam Byrne
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | | | - Andrej Stancak
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
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24
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de Lissa P, McArthur G, Hawelka S, Palermo R, Mahajan Y, Degno F, Hutzler F. Peripheral preview abolishes N170 face-sensitivity at fixation: Using fixation-related potentials to investigate dynamic face processing. VISUAL COGNITION 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/13506285.2019.1676855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Peter de Lissa
- iBMLab, Department of Psychology, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
- Department of Cognitive Science, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia
| | - Genevieve McArthur
- Department of Cognitive Science, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia
| | - Stefan Hawelka
- Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience, Salzburg University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Romina Palermo
- School of Psychological Science, University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia
| | - Yatin Mahajan
- The MARCS Institute, University of Western Sydney, Australia
| | - Federica Degno
- School of Psychology, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, UK
| | - Florian Hutzler
- Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience, Salzburg University, Salzburg, Austria
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25
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Payne BR, Stites MC, Federmeier KD. Event-related brain potentials reveal how multiple aspects of semantic processing unfold across parafoveal and foveal vision during sentence reading. Psychophysiology 2019; 56:e13432. [PMID: 31274200 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.13432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2019] [Revised: 06/04/2019] [Accepted: 06/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Recent event-related brain potential (ERP) experiments have demonstrated parafoveal N400 expectancy and congruity effects, showing that semantic information can be accessed from words in parafoveal vision (a conclusion also supported by some eye-tracking work). At the same time, it is unclear how higher-order integrative aspects of language comprehension unfold across the visual field during reading. In the current study, we recorded ERPs in a parafoveal flanker paradigm, while readers were instructed to read passively for comprehension or to judge the plausibility of sentences in which target words varied in their semantic expectancy and congruity. We directly replicated prior work showing graded N400 effects for parafoveal viewing, which are then not duplicated when the target words are processed foveally. Critically, although N400 effects were not modulated by task goals, a posteriorly distributed late positive component thought to reflect semantic integration processes was observed to semantic incongruities only in the plausibility judgment task. However, this effect was observed at a considerable delay, appearing only after words had moved into foveal vision. Our findings thus suggest that semantic access can be initiated in parafoveal vision, whereas central foveal vision may be necessary to enact higher-order (and task-dependent) integrative processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brennan R Payne
- Department of Psychology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah.,Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah.,Center on Aging, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah
| | | | - Kara D Federmeier
- Department of Psychology, University of Illinois, Champaign, Illinois.,Neuroscience Program, University of Illinois, Champaign, Illinois.,Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois, Champaign, Illinois
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26
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No Effect of cathodal tDCS of the posterior parietal cortex on parafoveal preprocessing of words. Neurosci Lett 2019; 705:219-226. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2019.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2018] [Revised: 04/12/2019] [Accepted: 05/03/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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27
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Dampuré J, Benraiss A, Vibert N. Modulation of parafoveal word processing by cognitive load during modified visual search tasks. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2019; 72:1805-1826. [DOI: 10.1177/1747021818811123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
During visual search for simple items, the amount of information that can be processed in parafoveal vision depends on the cognitive resources that are available. However, whether this applies to the semantic processing of words remains controversial. This work was designed to manipulate simultaneously two sources of cognitive load to study their impact on the depth of parafoveal word processing during a modified visual search task. The participants had to search for target words among parafoveally presented semantic, orthographic or target-unrelated distractor words while their electroencephalogram was recorded. The task-related load was manipulated by either giving target words in advance (literal task) or giving only a semantic clue to define them (categorical task). The foveal load was manipulated by displaying either a word or hash symbols at the centre of the screen. Parafoveal orthographic and semantic distractors had an impact on the early event-related potential component P2a only in the literal task and when hash symbols were displayed at the fovea, i.e., when both the task-related and foveal loads were low. The data show that all sources of cognitive load must be considered to understand how parafoveal words are processed in visual search contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julien Dampuré
- Centre de Recherches sur la Cognition et l’Apprentissage, CNRS, Université de Poitiers, Université de Tours, Poitiers, France
- Cognitive Neuroscience & Psycholinguistics Lab and Institute of Biomedical Technologies (IBT), University of La Laguna, La Laguna, Spain
| | - Abdelrhani Benraiss
- Centre de Recherches sur la Cognition et l’Apprentissage, CNRS, Université de Poitiers, Université de Tours, Poitiers, France
| | - Nicolas Vibert
- Centre de Recherches sur la Cognition et l’Apprentissage, CNRS, Université de Poitiers, Université de Tours, Poitiers, France
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28
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Himmelstoss NA, Schuster S, Hutzler F, Moran R, Hawelka S. Co-registration of eye movements and neuroimaging for studying contextual predictions in natural reading. LANGUAGE, COGNITION AND NEUROSCIENCE 2019; 35:595-612. [PMID: 32656295 PMCID: PMC7324136 DOI: 10.1080/23273798.2019.1616102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2018] [Accepted: 04/26/2019] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Sixteen years ago, Sereno and Rayner (2003. Measuring word recognition in reading: eye movements and event-related potentials. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7(11), 489-493) illustrated how "by means of review and comparison" eye movement (EM) and event-related potential (ERP) studies may advance our understanding of visual word recognition. Attempts to simultaneously record EMs and ERPs soon followed. Recently, this co-registration approach has also been transferred to fMRI and oscillatory EEG. With experimental settings close to natural reading, co-registration enables us to directly integrate insights from EM and neuroimaging studies. This should extend current experimental paradigms by moving the field towards studying sentence-level processing including effects of context and parafoveal preview. This article will introduce the basic principles and applications of co-registration and selectively review how this approach may shed light on one of the most controversially discussed issues in reading research, contextual predictions in online language processing.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sarah Schuster
- Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Florian Hutzler
- Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Rosalyn Moran
- Department of Neuroimaging, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King’s College London, London, UK
| | - Stefan Hawelka
- Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
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Jacucci G, Barral O, Daee P, Wenzel M, Serim B, Ruotsalo T, Pluchino P, Freeman J, Gamberini L, Kaski S, Blankertz B. Integrating neurophysiologic relevance feedback in intent modeling for information retrieval. J Assoc Inf Sci Technol 2019; 70:917-930. [PMID: 31763361 PMCID: PMC6853416 DOI: 10.1002/asi.24161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2017] [Revised: 04/20/2018] [Accepted: 10/17/2018] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The use of implicit relevance feedback from neurophysiology could deliver effortless information retrieval. However, both computing neurophysiologic responses and retrieving documents are characterized by uncertainty because of noisy signals and incomplete or inconsistent representations of the data. We present the first-of-its-kind, fully integrated information retrieval system that makes use of online implicit relevance feedback generated from brain activity as measured through electroencephalography (EEG), and eye movements. The findings of the evaluation experiment (N = 16) show that we are able to compute online neurophysiology-based relevance feedback with performance significantly better than chance in complex data domains and realistic search tasks. We contribute by demonstrating how to integrate in interactive intent modeling this inherently noisy implicit relevance feedback combined with scarce explicit feedback. Although experimental measures of task performance did not allow us to demonstrate how the classification outcomes translated into search task performance, the experiment proved that our approach is able to generate relevance feedback from brain signals and eye movements in a realistic scenario, thus providing promising implications for future work in neuroadaptive information retrieval (IR).
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulio Jacucci
- Helsinki Institute for Information Technology HIIT, Department of Computer Science University of Helsinki P.O. Box 68, (Pietari Kalmin katu 5), Helsinki FI-00014 Finland
| | - Oswald Barral
- Helsinki Institute for Information Technology HIIT, Department of Computer Science University of Helsinki P.O. Box 68, (Pietari Kalmin katu 5), Helsinki FI-00014 Finland
| | - Pedram Daee
- Helsinki Institute for Information Technology HIIT, Department of Computer Science Aalto University P.O.Box 15400, Aalto FI-00076 Finland
| | - Markus Wenzel
- Neurotechnology Group Technische Universität Berlin Berlin 10587 Germany
| | - Baris Serim
- Helsinki Institute for Information Technology HIIT, Department of Computer Science University of Helsinki P.O. Box 68, (Pietari Kalmin katu 5), Helsinki FI-00014 Finland
| | - Tuukka Ruotsalo
- Helsinki Institute for Information Technology HIIT, Department of Computer Science University of Helsinki P.O. Box 68, (Pietari Kalmin katu 5), Helsinki FI-00014 Finland
| | - Patrik Pluchino
- Human Inspired Technology Research Centre University of Padova Via Luzzatti 4, Padova 35121 Italy
| | | | - Luciano Gamberini
- Human Inspired Technology Research Centre University of Padova Via Luzzatti 4, Padova 35121 Italy
| | - Samuel Kaski
- Helsinki Institute for Information Technology HIIT, Department of Computer Science Aalto University P.O.Box 15400, Aalto FI-00076 Finland
| | - Benjamin Blankertz
- Neurotechnology Group Technische Universität Berlin Berlin 10587 Germany
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Ballenghein U, Megalakaki O, Baccino T. Cognitive engagement in emotional text reading: concurrent recordings of eye movements and head motion. Cogn Emot 2019; 33:1448-1460. [PMID: 30700215 DOI: 10.1080/02699931.2019.1574718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
The present study examined the effects of emotions on eye movements, head motion, and iPad motion during reading. Thirty-one participants read neutral, emotionally negative texts and emotionally positive texts on a digital tablet and both participants' eye movements and body movements were recorded using respectively eye-tracking glasses and a motion capture system. The results showed that emotionally positive texts were read faster than neutral texts, and that readers' movements decreased when reading emotional texts regardless of valence polarity. Recent studies suggested that postural movements may reflect cognitive engagement and especially the engagement in the task to be done. Our findings seem to validate this hypothesis of a bodily engagement in reading emotional contents. The present results suggest that the novel methodology of eye and postural movement recordings is informative in studying the readers' embodied engagement during reading emotional materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ugo Ballenghein
- a Department of Psychology, University Paris 8 , Paris , France
| | - Olga Megalakaki
- b Department of Psychology, Université de Picardie , Amiens , France
| | - Thierry Baccino
- a Department of Psychology, University Paris 8 , Paris , France
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31
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Referential processing during reading: concurrent recordings of eye movements and head motion. Cogn Process 2018; 20:371-384. [PMID: 30535580 DOI: 10.1007/s10339-018-0894-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2018] [Accepted: 11/28/2018] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
The present study utilized a new experimental set-up synchronizing eye movements and head motion for investigating referential change occurring in a reading task. We examined the effects of a change in narrative perspective during reading on eye movements and head motion. Forty-four participants read texts on a digital tablet, and both participants' eye movements and head movements were recorded using eye tracker and motion capture. The results showed longer eye fixation duration, longer reading time and decreasing head motions when perspective changed. Recent studies have supported the dynamic engagement hypothesis suggesting that there is a fluctuation in cognitive engagement reflected by postural movements. Our findings on head movements seem to validate this hypothesis of a bodily engagement in reading. The results provided by our study showed that the novel methodology of eye and head movement recordings we used was proven to be informative in studying the reader's embodiment during reading.
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Soto V, Tyson-Carr J, Kokmotou K, Roberts H, Cook S, Fallon N, Giesbrecht T, Stancak A. Brain Responses to Emotional Faces in Natural Settings: A Wireless Mobile EEG Recording Study. Front Psychol 2018; 9:2003. [PMID: 30410458 PMCID: PMC6209651 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2018] [Accepted: 09/28/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The detection of a human face in a visual field and correct reading of emotional expression of faces are important elements in everyday social interactions, decision making and emotional responses. Although brain correlates of face processing have been established in previous fMRI and electroencephalography (EEG)/MEG studies, little is known about how the brain representation of faces and emotional expressions of faces in freely moving humans. The present study aimed to detect brain electrical potentials that occur during the viewing of human faces in natural settings. 64-channel wireless EEG and eye-tracking data were recorded in 19 participants while they moved in a mock art gallery and stopped at times to evaluate pictures hung on the walls. Positive, negative and neutral valence pictures of objects and human faces were displayed. The time instants in which pictures first occurred in the visual field were identified in eye-tracking data and used to reconstruct the triggers in continuous EEG data after synchronizing the time axes of the EEG and eye-tracking device. EEG data showed a clear face-related event-related potential (ERP) in the latency interval ranging from 165 to 210 ms (N170); this component was not seen whilst participants were viewing non-living objects. The face ERP component was stronger during viewing disgusted compared to neutral faces. Source dipole analysis revealed an equivalent current dipole in the right fusiform gyrus (BA37) accounting for N170 potential. Our study demonstrates for the first time the possibility of recording brain responses to human faces and emotional expressions in natural settings. This finding opens new possibilities for clinical, developmental, social, forensic, or marketing research in which information about face processing is of importance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vicente Soto
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - John Tyson-Carr
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Katerina Kokmotou
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
- Institute for Risk and Uncertainty, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Hannah Roberts
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Stephanie Cook
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Nicholas Fallon
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Timo Giesbrecht
- Unilever Research & Development Port Sunlight Laboratory, Merseyside, United Kingdom
| | - Andrej Stancak
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
- Institute for Risk and Uncertainty, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
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33
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Target probability modulates fixation-related potentials in visual search. Biol Psychol 2018; 138:199-210. [PMID: 30253233 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2018.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2018] [Revised: 09/12/2018] [Accepted: 09/17/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
This study investigated the influence of target probability on the neural response to target detection in free viewing visual search. Participants were asked to indicate the number of targets (one or two) among distractors in a visual search task while EEG and eye movements were co-registered. Target probability was manipulated by varying the set size of the displays between 10, 22, and 30 items. Fixation-related potentials time-locked to first target fixations revealed a pronounced P300 at the centro-parietal cortex with larger amplitudes for set sizes 22 and 30 than for set size 10. With increasing set size, more distractor fixations preceded the detection of the target, resulting in a decreased target probability and, consequently, a larger P300. For distractors, no increase of P300 amplitude with set size was observed. The findings suggest that set size specifically affects target but not distractor processing in overt serial visual search.
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An error-aware gaze-based keyboard by means of a hybrid BCI system. Sci Rep 2018; 8:13176. [PMID: 30181532 PMCID: PMC6123473 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-31425-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2018] [Accepted: 08/02/2018] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Gaze-based keyboards offer a flexible way for human-computer interaction in both disabled and able-bodied people. Besides their convenience, they still lead to error-prone human-computer interaction. Eye tracking devices may misinterpret user's gaze resulting in typesetting errors, especially when operated in fast mode. As a potential remedy, we present a novel error detection system that aggregates the decision from two distinct subsystems, each one dealing with disparate data streams. The first subsystem operates on gaze-related measurements and exploits the eye-transition pattern to flag a typo. The second, is a brain-computer interface that utilizes a neural response, known as Error-Related Potentials (ErrPs), which is inherently generated whenever the subject observes an erroneous action. Based on the experimental data gathered from 10 participants under a spontaneous typesetting scenario, we first demonstrate that ErrP-based Brain Computer Interfaces can be indeed useful in the context of gaze-based typesetting, despite the putative contamination of EEG activity from the eye-movement artefact. Then, we show that the performance of this subsystem can be further improved by considering also the error detection from the gaze-related subsystem. Finally, the proposed bimodal error detection system is shown to significantly reduce the typesetting time in a gaze-based keyboard.
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Vignali L, Hawelka S, Hutzler F, Richlan F. Processing of parafoveally presented words. An fMRI study. Neuroimage 2018; 184:1-9. [PMID: 30165250 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.08.061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2017] [Revised: 07/06/2018] [Accepted: 08/25/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The present fMRI study investigated neural correlates of parafoveal preprocessing during reading and the type of information that is accessible from the upcoming - not yet fixated - word. Participants performed a lexical decision flanker task while the constraints imposed by the first three letters (the initial trigram) of parafoveally presented words were controlled. Behavioral results evidenced that the amount of information extracted from parafoveal stimuli, was affected by the difficulty of the foveal stimulus. Easy to process foveal stimuli (i.e., high frequency nouns) allowed parafoveal information to be extracted up to the lexical level. Conversely, when foveal stimuli were difficult to process (orthographically legal nonwords) only constraining trigrams modulated the task performance. Neuroimaging findings showed no effects of lexicality (i.e., difference between words and pseudowords) in the parafovea independently from the difficulty of the foveal stimulus. The constraints imposed by the initial trigrams, however, modulated the hemodynamic response in the left supramarginal gyrus. We interpreted the supramarginal activation as reflecting sublexical (phonological) processes. The missing parafoveal lexicality effect was discussed in relation to findings of experiments which observed effects of parafoveal semantic congruency on electrophysiological correlates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorenzo Vignali
- Center for Mind/Brain Sciences (CIMeC), University of Trento, 38068 Rovereto, TN, Italy; International School for Advanced Studies (SISSA), 34136 Trieste, Italy; Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience, University of Salzburg, Hellbrunnerstr. 34, 5020 Salzburg, Austria.
| | - Stefan Hawelka
- Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience, University of Salzburg, Hellbrunnerstr. 34, 5020 Salzburg, Austria
| | - Florian Hutzler
- Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience, University of Salzburg, Hellbrunnerstr. 34, 5020 Salzburg, Austria
| | - Fabio Richlan
- Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience, University of Salzburg, Hellbrunnerstr. 34, 5020 Salzburg, Austria
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Getting ahead of yourself: Parafoveal word expectancy modulates the N400 during sentence reading. COGNITIVE AFFECTIVE & BEHAVIORAL NEUROSCIENCE 2018; 17:475-490. [PMID: 28101830 DOI: 10.3758/s13415-016-0492-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
An important question in the reading literature regards the nature of the semantic information readers can extract from the parafovea (i.e., the next word in a sentence). Recent eye-tracking findings have found a semantic parafoveal preview benefit under many circumstances, and findings from event-related brain potentials (ERPs) also suggest that readers can at least detect semantic anomalies parafoveally (Barber, Van der Meij, & Kutas, Psychophysiology, 50(1), 48-59, 2013). We use ERPs to ask whether fine-grained aspects of semantic expectancy can affect the N400 elicited by a word appearing in the parafovea. In an RSVP-with-flankers paradigm, sentences were presented word by word, flanked 2° bilaterally by the previous and upcoming words. Stimuli consisted of high constraint sentences that were identical up to the target word, which could be expected, unexpected but plausible, or anomalous, as well as low constraint sentences that were always completed with the most expected ending. Findings revealed an N400 effect to the target word when it appeared in the parafovea, which was graded with respect to the target's expectancy and congruency within the sentence context. Furthermore, when targets appeared at central fixation, this graded congruency effect was mitigated, suggesting that the semantic information gleaned from parafoveal vision functionally changes the semantic processing of those words when foveated.
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37
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Schotter ER. Reading Ahead by Hedging Our Bets on Seeing the Future. PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING AND MOTIVATION 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.plm.2018.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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Payne BR, Federmeier KD. Event-related brain potentials reveal age-related changes in parafoveal-foveal integration during sentence processing. Neuropsychologia 2017; 106:358-370. [PMID: 28987909 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2017.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2016] [Revised: 07/24/2017] [Accepted: 10/02/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Normative aging is associated with deficits in visual acuity and cognitive control that impact the allocation of visual attention, but little is known about how those changes affect information extraction and integration during visual language comprehension in older adulthood. In the current study, we used a visual hemi-field flanker RSVP paradigm with event-related brain potentials to study how older readers process fine-grained aspects of semantic expectancy in parafoveal and foveal vision. Stimuli consisted of high constraint sentences with expected, unexpected but plausible, or anomalous parafoveal target words, as well as low constraint sentences with neutral but expected target words. Older adults showed graded parafoveal N400 effects that were strikingly similar to younger readers, indicating intact parafoveal semantic processing. However, whereas young adults were able to use this parafoveal pre-processing to facilitate subsequent foveal viewing, resulting in a reduced foveal N400 effect, older adults were not able to. Instead, older adults re-processed the semantics of words in foveal vision, resulting in a larger foveal N400 effect relative to the young. Collectively, our findings suggest that although parafoveal semantic processing per se is preserved in aging, there exists an age-related deficit in the ability to rapidly integrate parafoveal and foveal visual semantic representations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brennan R Payne
- Department of Psychology, University of Utah, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, United States.
| | - Kara D Federmeier
- Department of Psychology, Program in Neuroscience, and Beckman Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, United States
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Wenzel MA, Bogojeski M, Blankertz B. Real-time inference of word relevance from electroencephalogram and eye gaze. J Neural Eng 2017; 14:056007. [PMID: 28555611 DOI: 10.1088/1741-2552/aa7590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Brain-computer interfaces can potentially map the subjective relevance of the visual surroundings, based on neural activity and eye movements, in order to infer the interest of a person in real-time. APPROACH Readers looked for words belonging to one out of five semantic categories, while a stream of words passed at different locations on the screen. It was estimated in real-time which words and thus which semantic category interested each reader based on the electroencephalogram (EEG) and the eye gaze. MAIN RESULTS Words that were subjectively relevant could be decoded online from the signals. The estimation resulted in an average rank of 1.62 for the category of interest among the five categories after a hundred words had been read. SIGNIFICANCE It was demonstrated that the interest of a reader can be inferred online from EEG and eye tracking signals, which can potentially be used in novel types of adaptive software, which enrich the interaction by adding implicit information about the interest of the user to the explicit interaction. The study is characterised by the following novelties. Interpretation with respect to the word meaning was necessary in contrast to the usual practice in brain-computer interfacing where stimulus recognition is sufficient. The typical counting task was avoided because it would not be sensible for implicit relevance detection. Several words were displayed at the same time, in contrast to the typical sequences of single stimuli. Neural activity was related with eye tracking to the words, which were scanned without restrictions on the eye movements.
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Affiliation(s)
- M A Wenzel
- Technische Universität Berlin, Fachgebiet Neurotechnologie, Sekr. MAR 4-3, Marchstr. 23, 10587 Berlin, Germany
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Xue J, Quan C, Li C, Yue J, Zhang C. A crucial temporal accuracy test of combining EEG and Tobii eye tracker. Medicine (Baltimore) 2017; 96:e6444. [PMID: 28353574 PMCID: PMC5380258 DOI: 10.1097/md.0000000000006444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2016] [Revised: 02/23/2017] [Accepted: 03/01/2017] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Eye tracking and event-related potentials have been widely used in the field of cognitive psychology and neuroscience. Both techniques have the ability to refine cognitive models through a precise timeline description; nevertheless, they also have severe limitations. Combining measures of event-related potentials and eye movements can contribute to cognitive process capture, which provides the possibility to determine precisely when and in which order different cognitive operations occur. Combining of event-related potentials and eye movements has been recently conducted by synchronizing measures from an infrared eye tracker with an electroencephalograph to allow simultaneous data recording. Here, we describe in detail 4 types of co-registration methods for event-related potentials and eye movements on the Tobii platform. Moreover, the present investigation was designed to evaluate the temporal accuracy of data obtained using the 4 methods. We found that the method based on the Tobii Pro Analytics software development kit had a higher degree of temporal accuracy than the other co-registration methods. Furthermore, the reasons for the different temporal accuracies were assessed, and potential measures to correct clock drift were taken. General suggestions are made regarding timing in the co-registration of the electroencephalograph and eye tracker.
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Ladouce S, Donaldson DI, Dudchenko PA, Ietswaart M. Understanding Minds in Real-World Environments: Toward a Mobile Cognition Approach. Front Hum Neurosci 2017; 10:694. [PMID: 28127283 PMCID: PMC5226959 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2016.00694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2016] [Accepted: 12/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
There is a growing body of evidence that important aspects of human cognition have been marginalized, or overlooked, by traditional cognitive science. In particular, the use of laboratory-based experiments in which stimuli are artificial, and response options are fixed, inevitably results in findings that are less ecologically valid in relation to real-world behavior. In the present review we highlight the opportunities provided by a range of new mobile technologies that allow traditionally lab-bound measurements to now be collected during natural interactions with the world. We begin by outlining the theoretical support that mobile approaches receive from the development of embodied accounts of cognition, and we review the widening evidence that illustrates the importance of examining cognitive processes in their context. As we acknowledge, in practice, the development of mobile approaches brings with it fresh challenges, and will undoubtedly require innovation in paradigm design and analysis. If successful, however, the mobile cognition approach will offer novel insights in a range of areas, including understanding the cognitive processes underlying navigation through space and the role of attention during natural behavior. We argue that the development of real-world mobile cognition offers both increased ecological validity, and the opportunity to examine the interactions between perception, cognition and action-rather than examining each in isolation.
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López-Peréz PJ, Dampuré J, Hernández-Cabrera JA, Barber HA. Semantic parafoveal-on-foveal effects and preview benefits in reading: Evidence from Fixation Related Potentials. BRAIN AND LANGUAGE 2016; 162:29-34. [PMID: 27513878 DOI: 10.1016/j.bandl.2016.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2015] [Revised: 06/23/2016] [Accepted: 07/25/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
During reading parafoveal information can affect the processing of the word currently fixated (parafovea-on-fovea effect) and words perceived parafoveally can facilitate their subsequent processing when they are fixated on (preview effect). We investigated parafoveal processing by simultaneously recording eye movements and EEG measures. Participants read word pairs that could be semantically associated or not. Additionally, the boundary paradigm allowed us to carry out the same manipulation on parafoveal previews that were displayed until reader's gaze moved to the target words. Event Related Potentials time-locked to the prime-preview presentation showed a parafoveal-on-foveal N400 effect. Fixation Related Potentials time locked to the saccade offset showed an N400 effect related to the prime-target relationship. Furthermore, this later effect interacted with the semantic manipulation of the previews, supporting a semantic preview benefit. These results demonstrate that at least under optimal conditions foveal and parafoveal information can be simultaneously processed and integrated.
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Affiliation(s)
- P J López-Peréz
- Institute for Biomedical Technologies (ITB), University of La Laguna, Spain
| | - J Dampuré
- Institute for Biomedical Technologies (ITB), University of La Laguna, Spain; Centre de Recherches sur la Cognition et l'Apprentissage, UMR 7295, University of Poitiers, France
| | - J A Hernández-Cabrera
- Institute for Biomedical Technologies (ITB), University of La Laguna, Spain; Basque Center on Cognition, Brain and Language (BCBL), Spain
| | - H A Barber
- Institute for Biomedical Technologies (ITB), University of La Laguna, Spain; Basque Center on Cognition, Brain and Language (BCBL), Spain.
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Niefind F, Dimigen O. Dissociating parafoveal preview benefit and parafovea-on-fovea effects during reading: A combined eye tracking and EEG study. Psychophysiology 2016; 53:1784-1798. [PMID: 27680711 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.12765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2015] [Accepted: 08/18/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
During reading, the parafoveal processing of an upcoming word n+1 can influence word recognition in two ways: It can affect fixation behavior during the preceding fixation on word n (parafovea-on-fovea effect, POF), and it can facilitate subsequent foveal processing once word n+1 is fixated (preview benefit). While preview benefits are established, evidence for POF effects is mixed. Recently, it has been suggested that POF effects exist, but have a delayed impact on saccade planning and thus coincide with preview benefits measured on word n+1. We combined eye movement and EEG recordings to investigate and separate neural correlates of POF and preview benefit effects. Participants read lists of nouns either in a boundary paradigm or the RSVP-with-flankers paradigm, while we recorded fixation- or event-related potentials (FRPs/ERPs), respectively. The validity and lexical frequency of the word shown as preview for the upcoming word n+1 were orthogonally manipulated. Analyses focused on the first fixation on word n+1. Preview validity (correct vs. incorrect preview) strongly modulated fixation times and electrophysiological N1 amplitudes, replicating previous findings. Importantly, gaze durations and FRPs measured on word n+1 were also affected by the frequency of the word shown as preview, with low-frequency previews eliciting a sustained, N400-like centroparietal negativity. Results support the idea that POF effects exist but affect word recognition with a delay. Lastly, once word n+1 was fixated, its frequency also modulated N1 amplitudes in ERPs and FRPs. Taken together, we separated immediate and delayed effects of parafoveal processing on brain correlates of word recognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian Niefind
- Department of Psychology, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,Berlin School of Mind and Brain, Humboldt Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Olaf Dimigen
- Department of Psychology, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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Kornrumpf B, Niefind F, Sommer W, Dimigen O. Neural Correlates of Word Recognition: A Systematic Comparison of Natural Reading and Rapid Serial Visual Presentation. J Cogn Neurosci 2016; 28:1374-91. [DOI: 10.1162/jocn_a_00977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Neural correlates of word recognition are commonly studied with (rapid) serial visual presentation (RSVP), a condition that eliminates three fundamental properties of natural reading: parafoveal preprocessing, saccade execution, and the fast changes in attentional processing load occurring from fixation to fixation. We combined eye-tracking and EEG to systematically investigate the impact of all three factors on brain-electric activity during reading. Participants read lists of words either actively with eye movements (eliciting fixation-related potentials) or maintained fixation while the text moved passively through foveal vision at a matched pace (RSVP-with-flankers paradigm, eliciting ERPs). The preview of the upcoming word was manipulated by changing the number of parafoveally visible letters. Processing load was varied by presenting words of varying lexical frequency. We found that all three factors have strong interactive effects on the brain's responses to words: Once a word was fixated, occipitotemporal N1 amplitude decreased monotonically with the amount of parafoveal information available during the preceding fixation; hence, the N1 component was markedly attenuated under reading conditions with preview. Importantly, this preview effect was substantially larger during active reading (with saccades) than during passive RSVP with flankers, suggesting that the execution of eye movements facilitates word recognition by increasing parafoveal preprocessing. Lastly, we found that the N1 component elicited by a word also reflects the lexical processing load imposed by the previously inspected word. Together, these results demonstrate that, under more natural conditions, words are recognized in a spatiotemporally distributed and interdependent manner across multiple eye fixations, a process that is mediated by active motor behavior.
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Metzner P, von der Malsburg T, Vasishth S, Rösler F. The Importance of Reading Naturally: Evidence From Combined Recordings of Eye Movements and Electric Brain Potentials. Cogn Sci 2016; 41 Suppl 6:1232-1263. [DOI: 10.1111/cogs.12384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2014] [Revised: 03/07/2016] [Accepted: 03/10/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Paul Metzner
- Department of Linguistics; University of Potsdam
| | - Titus von der Malsburg
- Department of Psychology and Department of Linguistics; University of California, San Diego
| | | | - Frank Rösler
- Biological Psychology and Neuropsychology; University of Hamburg
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Wenzel MA, Golenia JE, Blankertz B. Classification of Eye Fixation Related Potentials for Variable Stimulus Saliency. Front Neurosci 2016; 10:23. [PMID: 26912993 PMCID: PMC4753317 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2016.00023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2015] [Accepted: 01/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Electroencephalography (EEG) and eye tracking can possibly provide information about which items displayed on the screen are relevant for a person. Exploiting this implicit information promises to enhance various software applications. The specific problem addressed by the present study is that items shown in real applications are typically diverse. Accordingly, the saliency of information, which allows to discriminate between relevant and irrelevant items, varies. As a consequence, recognition can happen in foveal or in peripheral vision, i.e., either before or after the saccade to the item. Accordingly, neural processes related to recognition are expected to occur with a variable latency with respect to the eye movements. The aim was to investigate if relevance estimation based on EEG and eye tracking data is possible despite of the aforementioned variability. APPROACH Sixteen subjects performed a search task where the target saliency was varied while the EEG was recorded and the unrestrained eye movements were tracked. Based on the acquired data, it was estimated which of the items displayed were targets and which were distractors in the search task. RESULTS Target prediction was possible also when the stimulus saliencies were mixed. Information contained in EEG and eye tracking data was found to be complementary and neural signals were captured despite of the unrestricted eye movements. The classification algorithm was able to cope with the experimentally induced variable timing of neural activity related to target recognition. SIGNIFICANCE It was demonstrated how EEG and eye tracking data can provide implicit information about the relevance of items on the screen for potential use in online applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus A Wenzel
- Neurotechnology Group, Technische Universität Berlin Berlin, Germany
| | - Jan-Eike Golenia
- Neurotechnology Group, Technische Universität Berlin Berlin, Germany
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Grainger J, Midgley KJ, Holcomb PJ. Trans-saccadic repetition priming: ERPs reveal on-line integration of information across words. Neuropsychologia 2016; 80:201-211. [PMID: 26656872 PMCID: PMC4698207 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2015.11.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2015] [Revised: 10/28/2015] [Accepted: 11/30/2015] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
We used a trans-saccadic priming paradigm combined with ERP recordings to track the time-course of integration of information across a prime word briefly presented at fixation and a subsequent target word presented 4 degrees to the right of fixation. Trans-saccadic repetition priming effects (Experiments 1 and 2) were compared with priming effects obtained with centrally located targets (Experiment 3). In Experiment 2, target stimuli were preceded by a 100ms forward mask at the target location, hence allowing an attention shift to the target location prior to target onset. Compared with centrally located targets, repetition priming effects were found to onset later in Experiment 2 and even later in Experiment 1, and the growth of priming effects was slower in both Experiments 1 and 2 compared with Experiment 3. The results demonstrate integration of information across spatially distinct primes and targets, with the time-course of trans-saccadic priming being determined by the speed with which attention can be allocated to peripheral targets plus the quality of information available in peripheral vision prior to fixation of target stimuli.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Grainger
- Laboratoire de Psychologie Cognitive, Aix-Marseille University & CNRS, France; Brain and Language Research Institute, Aix-Marseille University, Marseille, France.
| | | | - Phillip J Holcomb
- San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA; Tufts University, Medford, MA, USA
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48
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Zhang W, Li N, Wang X, Wang S. Integration of Sentence-Level Semantic Information in Parafovea: Evidence from the RSVP-Flanker Paradigm. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0139016. [PMID: 26418230 PMCID: PMC4587981 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0139016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2015] [Accepted: 09/07/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
During text reading, the parafoveal word was usually presented between 2° and 5° from the point of fixation. Whether semantic information of parafoveal words can be processed during sentence reading is a critical and long-standing issue. Recently, studies using the RSVP-flanker paradigm have shown that the incongruent parafoveal word, presented as right flanker, elicited a more negative N400 compared with the congruent parafoveal word. This suggests that the semantic information of parafoveal words can be extracted and integrated during sentence reading, because the N400 effect is a classical index of semantic integration. However, as most previous studies did not control the word-pair congruency of the parafoveal and the foveal words that were presented in the critical triad, it is still unclear whether such integration happened at the sentence level or just at the word-pair level. The present study addressed this question by manipulating verbs in Chinese sentences to yield either a semantically congruent or semantically incongruent context for the critical noun. In particular, the interval between the critical nouns and verbs was controlled to be 4 or 5 characters. Thus, to detect the incongruence of the parafoveal noun, participants had to integrate it with the global sentential context. The results revealed that the N400 time-locked to the critical triads was more negative in incongruent than in congruent sentences, suggesting that parafoveal semantic information can be integrated at the sentence level during Chinese reading.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenjia Zhang
- Center for Studies of Psychological Application and School of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science of Guangdong Province,South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Nan Li
- Center for Studies of Psychological Application and School of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science of Guangdong Province,South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiaoyue Wang
- Center for Studies of Psychological Application and School of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science of Guangdong Province,South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Suiping Wang
- Center for Studies of Psychological Application and School of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science of Guangdong Province,South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
- * E-mail:
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49
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Li N, Niefind F, Wang S, Sommer W, Dimigen O. Parafoveal processing in reading Chinese sentences: Evidence from event-related brain potentials. Psychophysiology 2015; 52:1361-74. [DOI: 10.1111/psyp.12502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2015] [Accepted: 06/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nan Li
- Center for Studies of Psychological Application and School of Psychology; South China Normal University; Guangzhou China
| | - Florian Niefind
- Department of Psychology; Humboldt University at Berlin; Berlin Germany
| | - Suiping Wang
- Center for Studies of Psychological Application and School of Psychology; South China Normal University; Guangzhou China
| | - Werner Sommer
- Department of Psychology; Humboldt University at Berlin; Berlin Germany
| | - Olaf Dimigen
- Department of Psychology; Humboldt University at Berlin; Berlin Germany
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Dampure J, Benraiss A, Vibert N. Task-dependent modulation of word processing mechanisms during modified visual search tasks. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2015; 69:1145-63. [PMID: 26176489 DOI: 10.1080/17470218.2015.1070886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
During visual search for words, the impact of the visual and semantic features of words varies as a function of the search task. This event-related potential (ERP) study focused on the way these features of words are used to detect similarities between the distractor words that are glanced at and the target word, as well as to then reject the distractor words. The participants had to search for a target word that was either given literally or defined by a semantic clue among words presented sequentially. The distractor words included words that resembled the target and words that were semantically related to the target. The P2a component was the first component to be modulated by the visual and/or semantic similarity of distractors to the target word, and these modulations varied according to the task. The same held true for the later N300 and N400 components, which confirms that, depending on the task, distinct processing pathways were sensitized through attentional modulation. Hence, the process that matches what is perceived with the target acts during the first 200 ms after word presentation, and both early detection and late rejection processes of words depend on the search task and on the representation of the target stored in memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julien Dampure
- a Centre de Recherches sur la Cognition et l'Apprentissage , Université de Poitiers, Université François Rabelais de Tours, CNRS UMR 7295, Maison des Sciences de l'Homme et de la Société , Poitiers , France
| | - Abdelrhani Benraiss
- a Centre de Recherches sur la Cognition et l'Apprentissage , Université de Poitiers, Université François Rabelais de Tours, CNRS UMR 7295, Maison des Sciences de l'Homme et de la Société , Poitiers , France
| | - Nicolas Vibert
- a Centre de Recherches sur la Cognition et l'Apprentissage , Université de Poitiers, Université François Rabelais de Tours, CNRS UMR 7295, Maison des Sciences de l'Homme et de la Société , Poitiers , France
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