The hot and the cold in destructive leadership: Modeling the role of arousal in explaining leader antecedents and follower consequences of abusive supervision versus exploitative leadership

Due to its devastating consequences, research needs to theoretically and empirically disentangle different sub-types of destructive leadership. Based on concepts derived from aggression research distinguishing re- and proactive aggression, we provide a process model differentiating abusive supervision and exploitative leadership. High versus low arousal negative affect is installed as the central mediating factor determining (1) whether perceived goal-blockage (leadership antecedents) leads to abusive supervision versus exploitative leadership and (2) whether a specific leadership behavior leads to active versus passive follower behavior (leadership consequence). Further, theoretical anchoring of individual and contextual moderators onto the model's process paths is provided and exemplary hypotheses for concrete moderation effects are deduced. Based on the provided process model, we highlight four recommendations to facilitate process-based construct differentiation in future research on destructive leadership. To precisely understand the differences and commonalities in different forms of destructive leadership will ultimately enable custom-tailored inter- and prevention.

Plain Language Summary

Negative leadership—also named “destructive” leadership—has very bad effects on followers and organizations. There are not just one, but many forms of destructive leadership and it is important to understand where different sub-types come from (i.e., to understand their antecedents) and which specific effect they have (i.e., to understand their consequences). In this paper, we focus on better understanding two forms of destructive leadership, namely abusive supervision and exploitative leadership. These two forms are similar to the two main forms of aggression. Abusive supervision is similar to reactive aggression, an impulsive “hot blooded” form of aggression. Exploitative leadership is similar to proactive aggression, a premeditated “cold blooded” form of aggression. We explain the parallels between the two forms of aggression and the two forms of leadership and provide a model which allows to predict when one versus the other form of leadership occurs and to which follower behavior they lead. An important factor in this model is the physiological characteristic of the emotional reaction to an event (i.e., arousal). An emotional reaction can be high in arousal; for instance, anger is a high arousal negative emotional reaction. On the contrary, boredom, for instance, is a low arousal negative emotional reaction. Dependent on whether both a leader and a follower react to a negative event (e.g., not getting what they want, being treated badly by others) with high or low arousal, their behavior will be different. We explain how this mechanism works and how it can help us to better predict leaders' and followers' behavior. We also outline how individual characteristics of the leader and follower and characteristics of their environment and context interact with arousal and their behavior.

The brain correlates of hostile attribution bias and their relation to the displaced aggression

BACKGROUND

Hostile attribution bias (HAB) has been considered as a risk factor of various types of psychosocial adjustment problem, and contributes to displaced aggression (DA). The neural basis of HAB and the underlying mechanisms of how HAB predicts DA remain unclear.

METHODS

The current study used degree centrality (DC) and resting-sate functional connectivity (RSFC) to investigate the functional connection pattern related to HAB in 503 undergraduate students. Furthermore, the "Decoding" was used to investigate which psychological components the maps of the RSFC-behavior may be related to. Finally, to investigate whether and how the RSFC pattern, HAB predicts DA, we performed mediation analyses.

RESULTS

We found that HAB was negatively associated with DC in bilateral temporal poles (TP) and positively correlated with DC in the putamen and thalamus; Moreover, HAB was negatively associated with the strength of functional connectivity between TP and brain regions in the theory of mind network (ToM), and positively related to the strength of functional connectivity between the thalamus and regions in the ToM network. The "Decoding" showed the maps of the RSFC-behavior may involve the theory mind, autobiographic, language, comprehension and working memory. Mediation analysis further showed that HAB mediated the relationship between some neural correlates of the HAB and DA.

LIMITATIONS

The current results need to be further tested by experimental methods or longitudinal design in further studies.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings shed light on the neural underpinnings of HAB and provide a possible mediation model regarding the relationships among RSFC pattern, HAB, and displaced aggression.

Gender Differences in the Personality Correlates of Reactive and Proactive Aggression in a Spanish Sample of Young Adults

Since the conceptual distinction of reactive and proactive aggression has been proposed, numerous studies have tried to disentangle the correlates of each function of aggression. While reactive aggression tends to be more strongly related to impulsivity, angry reactivity, or hostility, proactive aggression has proved to be more associated with psychopathic traits and goal-directed behaviors. However, in addition to the current debate about the actual distinction of reactive and proactive aggression, the study of gender differences is still scarce. Thus, the aim of the current study is to evaluate the distinctiveness of reactive and proactive aggression by means of the examination of their differential personality correlates (i.e., HEXACO, psychopathic traits, and impulsivity facets), as well as the assessment of gender differences in those relationships. To that end, a sample composed of 326 young adults aged 18-34 was recruited in Spain. The results evidenced unique associations of reactive and proactive aggression with a set of personality traits, including the HEXACO factors, psychopathic traits, and impulsivity facets, both at raw and residual level. Furthermore, when all the variables were entered in the model, proactive aggression remained strongly related to the factor of Honesty/humility and Emotionality, whereas reactive aggression remained associated with the impulsive/irresponsive factor of psychopathy and, specifically, with the facet of negative urgency, as well as with lack of Agreeableness. Likewise, some gender differences emerged as regards certain correlates. Specifically, proactive aggression was related with lack of Agreeableness and sensation seeking only in males and with the impulsive/irresponsive factor of psychopathy only in females, although these differences were not statistically significant. The conceptual and practical implications of these finding are discussed in terms of prevention.

Peer relations and different functions of cyber-aggression: A longitudinal study in Chinese adolescents

Although previous studies have focused on the associations between peer group relations and cyber-aggression, limited attention has been paid to the heterogeneity in the functions of cyber-aggression. This study explored the unique associations of peer relations with proactive and reactive cyber-aggression and the possible mechanisms underlying them in a sample of adolescents using a longitudinal study design. A total of 829 middle school students completed the Cyber-rage and Cyber-reward Aggression Subscales of the Cyber-Aggression Typology Questionnaire, the Peer Relations Scale, the Social Information Processing-Attributional Bias Questionnaire, and the Self-efficacy for Aggression Scale twice at a 6-month interval. Multiple mediation analyses and bootstrapping were conducted using the Mplus 8 software. The results indicated that satisfying peer relations were negatively correlated with reactive cyber-aggression and positively associated with proactive cyber-aggression. Moreover, hostile intent attribution and self-efficacy for aggression mediated the associations between peer relations and both functions of cyber-aggression, however, in different ways. Unsatisfying peer relations were associated with higher levels of hostile intent attribution and lower levels of self-efficacy for aggression and predicted increases in reactive cyber-aggression. In contrast, satisfying peer relations were associated with lower levels of hostile intent attribution and higher levels of self-efficacy for aggression and predicted increases in proactive cyber-aggression. The findings indicated that different functions of cyber-aggression might be related to different mediation mechanisms, which sheds light on the prevention of cyber-aggression in the future.

Cognitive Control Processes and Defense Mechanisms That Influence Aggressive Reactions: Toward an Integration of Socio-Cognitive and Psychodynamic Models of Aggression

Research on cognitive processes has primarily focused on cognitive control and inhibitory processes to the detriment of other psychological processes, such as defense mechanisms (DMs), which can be used to modify aggressive impulses as well as self/other images during interpersonal conflicts. First, we conducted an in-depth theoretical analysis of three socio-cognitive models and three psychodynamic models and compared main propositions regarding the source of aggression and processes that influence its enactment. Second, 32 participants completed the Hostile Expectancy Violation Paradigm (HEVP) in which scenarios describe a hostile vs. non-hostile social context followed by a character's ambiguous aversive behavior. The N400 effect to critical words that violate expected hostile vs. non-hostile intent of the behavior was analyzed. Prepotent response inhibition was measured using a Stop Signal task (SST) and DMs were assessed with the Defense Style Questionnaire (DSQ-60). Results showed that reactive aggression and HIA were not significantly correlated with response inhibition but were significantly positively and negatively correlated with image distorting defense style and adaptive defense style, respectively. The present article has highlighted the importance of integrating socio-cognitive and psychodynamic models to account for the full complexity underlying psychological processes that influence reactive aggressive behavior.

Traditional Masculinity and Aggression in Adolescence: Its Relationship with Emotional Processes

Traditional masculinity includes norms that encourage many of the aggressive behaviors whereas traditional femininity emphasizes aggression very little. In addition, the lack of emotional regulation as well as a poor impulse control have been related to aggression and, in particular, with reactive and proactive aggression. The objective of this study is to examine the role of gender stereotypes (masculinity/femininity) in reactive and proactive aggression, through regulatory emotional self-efficacy and emotion regulation. A total of 390 adolescents participated in a longitudinal study in Valencia, Spain. Structural equations modeling (SEM) was employed to explore a two-wave longitudinal model. The results show that femininity relates to reactive aggression through regulatory emotional self-efficacy and emotion regulation. This way, both emotional self-efficacy and emotional regulation mediate the relation between femininity and reactive aggression. Furthermore, reactive and proactive aggression relate positively and directly to masculinity and negatively to femininity. Therefore, violence prevention programs with adolescents should incorporate information to break down gender stereotypes and promote strategies to manage emotions. Such efforts may be helpful to reduce aggressive behaviors and violence.

Peer victimization and reactive aggression in junior high-school students: A moderated mediation model of retaliatory normative beliefs and self-perspective

Using an experimental design, we examined whether retaliatory normative beliefs mediated the relation between peer victimization and reactive aggression and whether self-perspective moderated the relations among peer victimization, retaliatory normative beliefs, and reactive aggressive behavior in a sample of 381 junior high-school students (165 girls) in Grades 7 and 8. Findings revealed that retaliatory normative beliefs fully mediated the relation between peer victimization and reactive aggression. Moreover, the mediating effect of retaliatory normative beliefs was moderated by self-perspective. Specifically, for the self-distanced group, peer victimization demonstrated a weaker impact on retaliatory normative beliefs than that of the self-immersed group and the control group. These results suggest that adolescents' beliefs about the acceptability of retaliatory aggression (rather than peer victimization) are directly associated with reactive aggression, and that self-distancing may be a protective factor against retaliatory normative beliefs and reactive aggression in provocative situations. The implications and limitations of these findings are discussed.

Irritability in Mood Disorders: Neurobiological Underpinnings and Implications for Pharmacological Intervention

Feeling irritable is a common experience, both in health and disease. In the context of psychiatric illnesses, it is a transdiagnostic phenomenon that features across all ages, and often causes significant distress and impairment. In mood disorders, irritability is near ubiquitous and plays a central role in diagnosis and yet, despite its prevalence, it remains poorly understood. A neurobiological model of irritability posits that, in children and adolescents, it is consequent upon deficits in reward and threat processing, involving regions such as the amygdala and frontal cortices. In comparison, in adults with mood disorders, the few studies that have been conducted implicate the amygdala, orbitofrontal cortices, and hypothalamus; however, the patterns of activity in these areas are at variance with the findings in youth. These age-related differences seem to extend to the neurochemistry of irritability, with links between increased monoamine transmission and irritability evident in adults, but aberrant levels of, and responses to, dopamine in youth. Presently, there are no specific treatments that have significant efficacy in reducing irritability in mood disorders. However, treatments that hold some potential and warrant further exploration include agents that act on serotonergic and dopaminergic systems, especially as irritability may serve as a prognostic indicator for overall clinical responsiveness to specific medications. Therefore, for understanding and treatment of irritability to advance meaningfully, it is imperative that an accurate definition and means of measuring irritability are developed. To achieve this, it is necessary that the subjective experience of irritability, both in health and illness, is better understood. These insights will inform an accurate, comprehensive, and valid interrogation of the qualities of irritability in health and illness, and allow not only a clinical appreciation of the phenomenon, but also a deeper understanding of its important role within the development and manifestation of mood disorders.

Longitudinal relationships among interpersonal openness trait, hostile attribution bias, and displaced aggressive behaviour: Big Five treated as covariates

Displaced aggressive behaviour is associated with many negative outcomes. Although certain personality traits predict displaced aggressive behaviour, the uniquely longitudinal effect of indigenous interpersonal traits on displaced aggressive behaviour is ignored. To address this gap, we explored the longitudinal relationship among an indigenously interpersonal trait of China (interpersonal openness), hostile attribution bias, and self-reported displaced aggressive behaviour. Additionally, we tested whether hostile attribution bias mediated the relationship between interpersonal openness and self-reported displaced aggressive behaviour. The Interpersonal Self-Support Scale for Undergraduate Students, Word Sentence Association Paradigm for Hostility, Displaced Aggression Questionnaire, and the NEO Personality Inventory-3 were administered to 942 undergraduates on two occasions, 6 months apart. A cross-lagged model showed that, after controlling for the Big Five personality traits, interpersonal openness predicted subsequent hostile attribution bias, and hostile attribution bias predicted self-reported displaced aggressive behaviour 6 months later. Hostile attribution bias at time 2 mediated the relationship between interpersonal openness at time 1 and self-reported displaced aggressive behaviour at time 2. These results were consistent with the interpersonal self-support theory's appraisals of interpersonal openness, and they extended the social information processing and general aggression models to explain displaced aggressive behaviour.

Irritability through Research Domain Criteria: an opportunity for transdiagnostic conceptualisation

Irritability is a transdiagnostic phenomenon that, despite its ubiquity and significant impact, is poorly conceptualised, defined and measured. As it lacks specificity, efforts to examine irritability in adults by using a diagnostic category perspective have been hamstrung. Therefore, using a Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) approach to examine irritability in adults, which spans many constructs and domains, may have a better chance of yielding underlying mechanisms that can then be mapped onto various diagnostic categories. Recently, a model has been proposed for irritability in children and adolescents that uses the RDoC framework; however, this model, which accounts for chronic, persistent irritability, may not necessarily transpose to adults. Therefore, use of the RDoC framework to examine irritability in adults is urgently needed, as it may shed light on this currently amorphous phenomenon and the many disorders within which it operates.

Does state self-control depletion predict relationship functioning and partner aggression? An ecological momentary assessment study of community couples

Intimate relationship functioning depends upon the ability to accommodate one's partner and to inhibit retaliatory and aggressive impulses when disagreements arise. However, accommodation and inhibition may be difficult when self-control strength is weak or depleted by prior exertion of self-control. The present study considered whether state self-control depletion prospectively predicts male and female self-reports of anger with partner and arguing with partner. Consistent with the I³ Model (Finkel, 2014, Adv Exp Soc Psychol, 49, 1-104), we also considered whether the association between elevated anger and arguing (i.e., instigation) and partner aggression was stronger when state self-control (i.e., inhibition) was depleted or among people high in negative urgency. In this ecological momentary assessment (EMA) study, heavy drinking married and cohabiting heterosexual couples (N = 191) responded to three randomly signaled reports each day for 30 days. Depletion predicted anger and arguing with partners both cross-sectionally and prospectively for men and women. However, after controlling for prior levels of anger and arguing, these effects were diminished, and supplemental analyses revealed that anger and arguing with partner predicted subsequent depletion. Anger and arguing were strongly associated with concurrent reports of partner aggression perpetration and victimization (verbal and/or physical). However, neither state self-control depletion nor negative urgency moderated these effects. Overall, results suggest a modest impact of depletion on daily couple functioning as well as a potential cyclical effect of arguing on depletion.

Association between depression and hostile attribution bias in hostile and non-hostile individuals: An ERP study

BACKGROUND

Hostility and aggression have been found to be highly prevalent among depressed patients and are associated with higher comorbidity and illness severity levels. Although negative interpretation biases are a fundamental element of cognitive models of depression, few studies have examined the specific biases in information processing, mainly the hostile attribution bias, found in hostile individuals who present depressive symptoms.

METHOD

Using pre-collected data from a sample of 72 (male=41,6%, female=58,3%) undergraduate and community-based hostile (n = 26) and non-hostile (n = 46) adult participants, the authors aimed to examine the association between depression and the hostile attribution bias by determining whether depression level scores were uniquely related to electrophysiological measures of the hostile attribution bias.

RESULTS

The hostile group showed higher measured levels of depression and reactive aggression compared to the non-hostile group. Also, depression scores were significant predictors of the N400 effect in the non-hostile task condition, while reactive aggression was not, whereas in the hostile condition, the overall model was significant, with depression and reactive aggression levels both showing strong trends towards significance.

LIMITATIONS

A small sample size limited the scope of our conclusions. Also, sample selection prevented us from examining specific group differences regarding the hostile attribution bias in depressed and non-depressed groups.

CONCLUSION

Clinical and research implications include the necessity to apply cognitive restructuring techniques to counter biased interpretation processes in settings where depression and aggression intersect, and the need to consider alternatives to self-evaluative methodologies.

Pathways to aggression and violence in psychosis without longstanding antisocial behavior: A review and proposed psychosocial model for integrative clinical interventions

There is a need for a clearer understanding of the factors associated with increased risk of aggression and violence (AV) among people with psychosis and other severe mental illness (SMI) to guide effective prevention and intervention. The current article (1) reviews the literature regarding psychosocial factors associated with AV among individuals with psychosis and other SMI who do not have longstanding antisocial behaviors, (2) proposes an integrative psychosocial model of AV that can be practically applied, and (3) proposes appropriate evidence-based clinical interventions to reduce AV and facilitate recovery. We propose that increased risk for AV among people with psychosis is driven by anger, which is affected by a range of factors including victimization and situational stressors, social rejection or experiences of discrimination, anxious arousal, and hostile attribution bias related to psychosis. The cumulative effect of these systems is exacerbated by co-occurring substance misuse and increased impulsivity, particularly negative urgency. In consideration of the current psychosocial model and existing evidence-based interventions for AV in individuals with psychosis, we propose that trauma-informed interventions that integrate skills training in emotion regulation, social and interpersonal situations, cognitive restructuring and remediation, and modified prolonged exposure may demonstrate the most promise for this population.

Mediating Effect of Attributional Biases in the Impulsivity-Aggression Relationship Among Adolescents: Therapeutic Implications

Aggression is a multidimensional phenomenon, and for its better understanding, specificity involved in its dynamics must be explored. This article explores the role of attributional bias as a mediator between impulsivity and aggressive tendencies among adolescents. The mediating effect of hostile attributional bias (HAB) on the impulsivity-aggression relationship has not been studied extensively so far, especially in the Indian context. For testing the hypotheses, 320 participants within the age range 12 to 15 years (M age = 13.57 years) were selected and administered relevant standardized questionnaires. Baron and Kenny's criterion was used for mediation analysis, demonstrating that HAB partially mediates the association between impulsivity and aggression. Findings imply that reducing HAB through some reattribution intervention may be an effective strategy to reduce impulsivity-induced aggression. Specific guidelines to implement such interventions are suggested in the discussion.

Reactive Aggression Affects Response Inhibition to Angry Expressions in Adolescents: An Event-Related Potential Study Using the Emotional Go/No-Go Paradigm

Although it is well established that response inhibition to angry expressions is impaired among reactively aggressive adolescents, the cognitive processes underlying this effect remain unclear. The main goal of our study was to investigate the time course of response inhibition to angry expressions in reactively aggressive adolescents compared to controls. In total, 23 reactively aggressive adolescents and 23 control adolescents were recruited to participate in an event-related potential (ERP) study measuring response inhibition to angry expressions with an emotional Go/No-go paradigm. The results showed that when presented angry or happy expressions, reactively aggressive adolescents showed a smaller No-go P3 effect than the control group. These results indicate that response inhibition to angry expressions in reactively aggressive adolescents is impaired at the later stage of the actual inhibitory control. The characteristics of response inhibition to happy expressions in reactively aggressive adolescents are similar to those in response to angry expressions.

Internal Battles: Examining How Anger/Hostility Moderate the Association Between Negative Urgency and Suicidal Desire Variables in Military and Civilian Samples

OBJECTIVE

Suicide is consistently within the top ten leading causes of death in the United States. The suicide rate of National Guard personnel is elevated relative to the general population; however, research suggests that many of the suicide risk factors for military personnel are similar to the suicide risk factors for civilians. We examined whether negative urgency moderated the relationships between anger/hostility and perceived burdensomeness/thwarted belongingness in both a military and civilian samples.

METHOD

There were two samples in the current study: (1) military personnel (majority national guard) and (2) community members oversampled for suicide attempt history.

RESULTS

Our hypotheses were partially supported with the interaction of hostility and negative urgency predicting perceived burdensomeness in the military sample. Within civilians, anger interacted with negative urgency to predict perceived burdensomeness. There were nonsignificant findings for analyses predicting thwarted belongingness. Exploratory analyses indicated that in both samples, anger and hostility interacted with negative urgency to predict suicidal ideation.

CONCLUSIONS

Results suggest that aggressive attributes may contribute to individuals feeling as though they are a burden on others when moderate to high levels of negative urgency are present. Additionally, this study provides foundational support for the differences between suicidal desire and ideation.

The relationship between physiological reactivity to provocation and emotion dysregulation with proactive and reactive aggression

Biological theories of aggression propose that autonomic nervous system (ANS) hypo-reactivity may be more specific to proactive aggression, whereas ANS hyper-reactivity may be specific to reactive aggression. However, the research findings in this area are mixed. Furthermore, no study to date has examined whether emotion dysregulation moderates the aggression - ANS relationship. The present study examined electrodermal activity (EDA), respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) and heart rate (HR) reactivity in 76-undergraduate participants (29 men, mean age = 21.49) in response to a provocation task relative to baseline. Results showed that blunted HR reactivity was associated with increased proactive aggression. RSA augmentation and blunted EDA reactivity were both associated with increased proactive and reactive aggression, but only among those above the sample mean on emotion dysregulation. Thus, emotion dysregulation may play a key role in the relationship between ANS reactivity and both reactive and proactive aggression.

The Computations of hostile biases (CHB) model: Grounding hostility biases in a unified cognitive framework

Our behavior is partly a product of our perception of the world, and aggressive individuals have been found to have 'hostility biases' in their perception and interpretation of social information. Four types of hostility biases can be distinguished: the hostile attribution, interpretation, expectation, and perception bias. Such low-level biases are believed to have a profound influence on decision-making, and possibly also increase the likelihood of engaging in aggressive acts. The current review systematically examined extant research on the four types of hostility bias, with a particular focus on the associations between each type of hostility bias and aggressive behavior. The results confirmed the robust association between hostility biases and aggressive behavior. However, it is still unknown how exactly hostility biases are acquired. This is also caused by a tendency to study hostility biases separately, as if they are non-interacting phenomena. Another issue is that current approaches cannot directly quantify the latent cognitive processes pertaining to the hostility biases, thus creating an explanatory gap. To fill this gap, we embedded the results of the systematic review in a state-of-the-art computational framework, which provides a novel mechanistic account with testable predictions.

Brain structure links trait hostile attribution bias and attitudes toward violence

The majority of research regarding hostile attribution bias focuses on its effect on aggression. However, little is known about the brain structure associated with trait hostile attribution bias and the mediating mechanism underlying this link. The current study uses voxel-based morphometry (VBM) to identify the brain regions related to individual differences in trait hostile attribution bias, measured by a Word Sentence Association Paradigm - Hostility in a sample of 176 undergraduate students. Subsequently, two mediation models with regard to brain structure, trait hostile attribution bias, and attitudes toward violence (measured by the Attitudes toward Violence Scale) were analyzed. The results reveal that trait hostile attribution bias is positively correlated with gray matter volume (GMV) in the left orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) and negatively associated with the left lingual gyrus (LG). Furthermore, attitudes toward violence acted as a mediator underlying the association between the left OFC volume and trait hostile attribution bias. Such bias also mediated the relationship between the left OFC and attitudes toward violence. We argue that attitudes toward violence and trait hostile attribution bias seem to predict each other, and the GMV in the left OFC may involve the underlying cognitive mechanism of the bidirectional relationship between the two variables. These results and ideas may shed light on the current understanding of the relationships of the brain's anatomical features, attitudes toward violence, and trait hostile attribution bias.

An ERP study on hostile attribution bias in aggressive and nonaggressive individuals

Hostile attribution bias (e.g., tendency to interpret the intention of others as hostile in ambiguous social contexts) has been associated with impulsive aggression in adults, but the results are mixed and the complete sequence of hostile inferential processes leading to aggression has not been investigated yet. The goal of this event-related brain potentials (ERPs) study was to track the neural activity associated with the violation of expectations about hostile versus nonhostile intentions in aggressive and nonaggressive individuals and examine how this neural activity relates to self-reported hostile attributional bias and impulsive aggression in real life. To this end, scenarios with a hostile versus nonhostile social context followed by a character's ambiguous aversive behavior were presented to readers, and ERPs to critical words that specified the hostile versus nonhostile intent behind the behavior were analysed. Thirty-seven aggressive and fifty nonaggressive individuals participated in the study. The presentation of a critical word that violated hostile expectation caused an N400 response that was significantly larger in aggressive than nonaggressive individuals. Results also showed an enhanced late positive potential-like component in aggressive individuals when hostile intention scenarios took place in a nonhostile context, which is associated with impulsive aggression in real life even after having controlled for the effect of self-reported hostile attributional bias. The Hostile Expectancy Violation paradigm evaluated in this study represents a promising tool to investigate the relationship between the online processing of hostile intent in others and impulsive aggression. Aggr. Behav. 43:217-229, 2017. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.